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REPORT

OF THE

EIGHTY-FOURTH MEETING OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

AUSTRALIA; 1914

JULY 28—AUGUST 31

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1915

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.

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CONTENTS.

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Page

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1914—1915..............cccecececeeeceseceeeeceneeeeeeeoes ili
RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION...........0cccececeececsaececeeentee esses v
Tasies: Past ANNUAL MEETINGS: *

Trustees, General Officers, &c. (1831-1914) .....ecesesseeeseeeee teens xxi

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries (1901-1914) .............::0se0ee XXxli

Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates (1901-1914) xxx

Evening Discourses (1901-1914) ............s.seseeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeerene 0.6.0.6

Lectures to the Operative Classes and Public Lectures (1901-1914) xxxi

Grants for Scientific Purposes (1901-1913)...... ee. cee eee eee XXXiil

Reporr oF THE CouNcIL TO THE GENERAL Committee, 1913-1914 ... xxxix
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1913-1914 .... eee eee eee cess eee ees xliv

AvsTRALIAN MEETING, 1914: SECTIONAL OFFICERS.........0..c0ceceseeeeeees xlvi

AnnvuaL Mertines: Praces and Dates, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES,
RECEIPTS, AND SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC
Purposes (1831-1914) ........ eee Pears aceGt see aeeceat eevee dedciee ticlaccs xlvili

POM REVAIS: OF) ACRDENDANGES 2<ccccc ons ciclel iniictlscties ceclecciecs cdeedehscccdiscesaenclecs l

AUSTRALIAN MEETING :

FRGReArC Uw OMI TTEOS) eo. cee oes oe teaseateecee emcees dae haswdnseswessaisiiaess lii
Communications ordered to be printed 27 extenso ............. sence es lxiv
Resolutions referred to the Council ...................ceccceneeeeee eeeeee lxiv
SryaIOpsIN On CiRaNts OF MONGY ec iencac;rorcsseash mosses oRdatasescsaecesase Ixvi
MINTER NRW Seino Satiate tse cece sia sicnceesacesn dele cocibces «Dastiecth ess seseenesae Ixvili

* Particulars for early Meetings not furnished in the following Tables will
be found in Volumes for 1911 and previous years.
A2

—

ll CONTENTS.

Page
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, ProressoR WILLIAM Barsson, M.A.,F.RS. 3

IREPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, KC. 2... 0.2.0... 002k. cccenesnsesceserscene 41

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS:

A.—Mathematical and Physical Science ..............:eeeeeeeeeceeees 285
We AO MOBUISERY cana cts rewenejessecessssesecace as) ss+escenseatnesnes"en6t ep 522
(CFR Grell Oniyeree asc deremecsese omrc de> ccscssecohessnssnevontececatenadatem a B44
MDF LOL ODty meecepene ence ree ess cercccce’ sistent os +eseeer ses emssi urn searnee 383
By —(GeOprapliy sec neg te see: tonccek Chea cb gsauceceseessesaccoerenssassnnenes 426
F.— Economie Science and Statistics .........scscsc..5 sesseseveereeeers 453
(r= EIA OUT CUI Dereon eMC ovis |= ov en's sos eoinessiesjecenanaesweaween 490
GA CRO DOL OV apereere er tein = daseGaatondnes \socan sot sentecesbesseeneneae 515
HEE IO LOD Yi ere aereser dee ae saci east =f -wakse<o' ov ecieanoesucasasesenaae 537
KB GORE eee oaie eecawebee senate sweat teiscesbeon acs foavievdvoebteds dada dar 560
L.—Education ......... 5 $60) RO pao toe Ce EEE Chere 592
M.—Agriculture. ............. Deen ceria ecthennd soe scetens be ieaeet . 636
NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY OF THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING .........-.+..- 679

Visit oF MEMBERS OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION TO THE MBETING OF
L’AssocraTion FRANCAISE AT HAvRE—REpoR? oF THE ComMITTEE 720

REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIFS COMMITTEE................00005 722

REPORT OF THE CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIFIIES 722

WAGTVEN: | Scewewe vise ca coees =< sees eeete seas he Oe eos de aac ena Teno ap onen ees w nae ee seam 757
ISt OF SRUBITCATIONS) + <. os. Geccne o<6 Meee = cdleten sese soos sap eted tttaee cose eae rama 783
ars OR MEMOIRS; (000 r. .. <aaceeaens mepeeea hot ateeeaats tie aecearecenerees saaerk 172 pages

LIST OF PLATES.

Puate I.—Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations.

Prats H,—Illustrating the Report on the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.

Puates III, anp [V.—Illustrating the Report on Belmullet Whaling Station.

Pirate V.—Illustrating Dr. Lyman Briggs’ Paper on Dry-Farming Investiga-
tions in the United States.

Puare VI.—Illustrating Prof. H. E. Armstrong’s Remarks on the Structure of
Atoms and Molecules.

Puate VII.—Illustrating Prof. W. J. Pope’s Address to the Chemistry Section.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1914-1915.

PATRON. »
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS,

His Excellency the Governor-General of the Com- ; The Honourable the Premiers of New South Wales,

monwealtbh of Australia. Victoria, Queensland, Sonth Australia, Western
Their Excellencies the Governors of New South | Australia, Tasmania.
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia. The Right Honourable the Lord Mayors of Sydney
Western Australia, Tasmania, and Melbourne.
The Honourable the Prime Minister of the Com- | The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisbane.
monwealth. Adelaide, Perth, Hobart.

The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, Queensland,
Western Australia.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor ARTHUR SCHUSTER, PH.D., SEC.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon.the Lord Mayor of Manchester. | The High Sheriff of Cheshire.
The Right Hon. Lorp SHurrLeEwortTu, LL.D., The Worshipful the Mayor of Salford.
Lord-Lieutenant of Lancashire. The Right Rey. the Bishop of Salford.
|

‘The High Sheriff of Lancashire. The Right Hon. Sir H. EB. Roscor, Ph.D., D.C.L.,
The Right Hon. Viscount MorLey oF BLACcK- F.R.S.

BURN, O.M., D.O.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of Man- | The Right Hon. Sir WiLLiAM MATHER, LL.D.
chester University. | The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Man-
His Grace the DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE. | chester.
The Right Hon. the Eart or Dersy, K.G. | Sir EDWARD DonneER, Bart., LL.D.
The Right Hon. the EARL or ELLESMERE, M.V.O. | Sir FRANK FORBES ADAM, O.1.E., LL.D.
The Right Hon. ViscounrT Bryce, D.C.L,,LL.D., | Alderman Sir T. THORNHILL SHANN, J.P.
F.R.S. Professor Horace Lamp, D.Sc., F.R.S.
The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Manchester, | R. NoTON Barcray, Esq.
The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. I

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sce., D.C.L., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
0. J. R, HOWARTH, M.A., Burlington House, London, W.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. STEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER.
Alderman Epwarp Hott, J.P.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT MANCHESTER.

Professor S. J. Hickson, D.Sce., F.R.S, | Principal J.O, Max wet Gannerr, M.A.
Councillor E, D. Sion, M.1.0.E,

lv OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. HALL, A. D., F.R.S.

BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, C.B. / HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Braae, Professor W. H., F.R.S. IM THURN, Sir E. F., K.0.M.G.
OLERK, Dr. DUGALD, F.R.S. LODGE, ALFRED, M, A,

ORAIGIE, Major P. G., C.B. Lyons, Captain H, G., F.R.S,
CROOKE, W., B.A. | MELDOLA, Professor R., FR. Ss.
DENDY, Professor A., F.R.S. MyreEs, Professor J. L., M.A.
Drxey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. RUTHERFORD, Sir E., F. RS.

Drxon, Professor H. B., F.R.S. SAUNDERS, Miss E. R.

Dyson, Sir F. W., F.R.S. / STARLING, Professor E. H., F.R.S.
GRIFFITHS, Principal E. H., F.R.S. TEALL, Dr, J. J. H., F.R.S.
Happow, Dr. A. C., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Dr. SILVANUS P., F.R.S.

WEIss, Professor F. E., D.Sc.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord RayLeieu, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR W. RicKeEr, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Lord Rayleigh, 0.M., F.R.S. | Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. | Sir J.J. Thomson, 0.M., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D. a L., F.B.S. | Sir Norman Lockyer, K. 6. B.,F.R.S.| Prof. T. G. Bonney. § c.D., F.R.S.
Sir A. Geikie, K.0.B.,0.M., F.R.S. Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Sir W. Ramsay, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Sir W. Orookes, 0. M., Pres.R.S. | Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.O.B.,F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schiifer, LL. D. . F.B.S
Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. Sir Francis Darwin, F. R.S. Sir Oliver Lodge, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. ‘

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schafer, LL.D., F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
A. Vernon Harcourt, D.O.L., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. Major P, A, MacMahon, F,R.S.
Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G. Oarey Foster, F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. I Professor H.t!McLeod, LL.D., F.R.S.

RULES OF
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

[Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907,
with subsequent amendments. |

CHAPTER I.

Objects and Constitution.

1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance- Objects.
ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.

The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.

2. The Association shall consist of Members, Associates, Constitution.
and Honorary Corresponding Members.

The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its
affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.

3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or Annual
longer, and at such other times as the General Committee Meetings.
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

Cuaprer II.
The General Committee.

1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the Constitution.
following persons :—

(i) Permanent Members—

(a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past
and present Presidents of the Sections.

Vi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

(b) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furthered the advancement of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.

(ii) Temporary Members—

(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections.

(5) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.

(d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in
number—from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.

Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
General Committee shall be final.

(i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must
be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one
month before the Annual Meeting.

(ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or
during the Annual Meeting.

Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during
every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time
to summon a meeting of the General Committee.

Functions. 4. The General Committee shall

(i) Receive and consider the Report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the Report of the Committee
of Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council.
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors.
(x) Elect the Officers of the Conference of Delegates.
(xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual
Meeting.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. vii

Cuapter IIT,
Committee of Recommendations.

1. * The ea officio Members of the Committee of Recom-
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association, the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates, the
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and
the Presidents of the Association in former years.

An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.

If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.

2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted.

Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.

Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub-
Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other
change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of
the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration and report.

3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble,
for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual
Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their
Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the
last day of the Annual Meeting.

* Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909.

Constitution.

Functions.

Procedure.

Constitution.

Proposals by
Sectional
Committees,

Tenure.

Reports.

Viil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CuHapTerR LV.
Research Committees.

1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.

In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to
conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research,
and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the
Committee of Recommendations may include such recom-
mendation in their report to the General Committee.

2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to
add to their numbers.

3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen-
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.

All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall
be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not
later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for
presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.

4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
in that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money.

5. Every Research Committee shall present a Report,
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim
Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub-
mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain
whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee
appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of
the Annual Meeting.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. ix

6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.

Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting
expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not
authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants.

The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before
the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of
the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer
a statement of the sums that have been received and ex-
pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains un-
expended ; provided that a Research Committee may, in the
first year of its appointment only, apply for leave to retain
an unexpended balance when or before its Report is presented,
due reason being given for such application.*

When application is made for a Committee to be re-
appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and
also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further
grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with
the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.

In making grants of money to Research Committees, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal
expenses to the Members.

A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
Committee.

7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their
Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens
thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct.

Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap-
paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made
by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is
likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or
for other specific purposes.

All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of
the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall
be deposited at the Office of the Association.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dundee, 1912.

GRANTS.
(a) Drawn by
Chairman.

(bd) Expire on
June 30.

(ec) Accounts
and balance
in hand

(d) Addi-
tional Grant,

(e) Caveat.

Disposal of
specimens,
apparatus,

ke.

x RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CHAPTER V.
The Council.

Constitution. 1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of
Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com-
mittee.

(i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi-
dents of the Association, the President and Vice-
Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-
Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting.

(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in
number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
previous year.

Functions. 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.

In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.

The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.

The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.

Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the
Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected
shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in
March, when the nomination shall be made from the names
on the list.

The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.

THE COUNCIL. xl

3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same
time as that of the Officers of the Association,

(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary
Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-
election in the ensuing year :

(a) Three of the Members who have served for the
longest consecutive period, and
(b) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near
London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.
Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.

(ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee,
in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three
Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council.

(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.

Any member of the General Committee may propose
another member thereof for election as one of these two
Members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,
they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two
are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
unless five Members at least require it to be by ballot.

Cuaprer VI.
The President, General Officers, and Staff.

1. The President assumes office on the first day of the
Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address.
He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.

The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented
by a Vice-President or past President of the Association.

Elections,

The Presi-
dent.

2. The General Officers of the Association are the Genera] General

Treasurer and the Genera! Secretaries.

Officers.

The General
Treasurer.

The General
Secretaries.

The Assistant
Secretary.

Assistant
Treasurer,

Financial
Statements.

xil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Tt shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.

3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs
of the Association.

4. The General Secretaries shall control the general
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general routine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.

5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the
pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.

The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore-
said : (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.

6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as
Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the
routine work of the duties of his office.

The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of
Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other
work as may be delegated to him.

CuaptTer VII.
Finance.

1, The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall
receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after

FINANCE. xi

June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the
General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the
Association.

2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.

3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay-
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council.

4, The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the
account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf,
part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit
of the Association in the books of the Bank of England,
either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest-
ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem-
porary investment as may seem to him desirable.

5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable,
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.

Cuaprer VIII.
The Annual Meetings.

1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.

2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-
mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for
the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers
and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers
shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to
receive subscriptions.

3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under-
take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of
the Sections.

Audit.

Expenditure,

Investments,

Cheques.

Local Offi-
cers and
Committees,

Functions.

Xiv RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

CHaptrer IX.
The Work of the Sections.

THE 1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans-

SECTIONS. acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time
to time by the General Committee.

It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the
Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica-
tions addressed to that Section.

Sectional 2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or

Officers. more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They
shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,
and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.

Rooms. 3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall
not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes
than those of the Association.

SECTIONAL 4, The work of each Section shall be conducted by a

COMMITTEES. Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :—

Constitution. (i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office.

(ii) All past Presidents of that Section.

(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at
any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :

Provided always that—
Privilege of (a) Any Member of the Association who has served on
Old Members, the Committee of any Section in any previous year,
and who has intimated his intention of being present
at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of
that Committee at their first meeting.
Daily (6) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above
Co-optation. set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.

THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. XV

(c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
Section, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.

5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the
President and the Recorder., They shall have power to act on
behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional
Committee at its next meeting.

The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi-
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.

The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans-
mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of
his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional
Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers
appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual
Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the
Sectional Committee.

6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the
close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own
members to be members of an Organising Committee, with
the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and
past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual
Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of
the ensuing Annual Meeting.

Each Organising Committee shall hold such meetings as
are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation
of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting
on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate
members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro-
visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the
Sectional Committee.

Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other-
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may
arise out of the proceedings of the Section.

No paper shall be read” in any Section until it has been
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted
on its Minutes.

Additional
Vice-Presi-
dents.

EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS

Of President

and of
Recorder.

Organising
Committee.

Sectional
Committee.

Papers and
Reports.

Recommen-
dations.

Publication.

xvl RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read
also in any other Section.

No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the
Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has
been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close
of the Annual Meeting.

It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com-
mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required: to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research

- Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task

of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa-
tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu-

‘tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The

appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV.

No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com-
mittee.

7. Papers ordered to be printed in eatenso shall not be
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports
of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere
than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of
the Council.

8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed im extenso in the Annual Report shall
be vested in the authors ; and the copyright of the reports
of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee
shall be vested in the Association.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. XVil

CHAPTER X.
Admission of Members and Associates.

1. No technical qualification shall be required on the
part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an
Associate of the British Association; but the Council is
empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to
impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect.

* Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate
shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association,
any infringement of which on his part may render him liable
to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they
think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege
of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of
admission already issued.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
Meeting.

2, All Members are eligible to any office in the Association.

(i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum
of Ten Pounds.

Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual
Reports of the Association.

(i) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
e sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound.

Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report
of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay,
without intermission, their annual subscription. An
Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any
particular year shall lose for that and all future
years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports
of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume
his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent
Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound.

(ili) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission,
the sum of One Pound.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dublin, 1908.
1914,

Applications.

Obligations.

Conditions
and Privileges
of Member-
ship.

Correspond-
ing Members.

Annual Sub-
scriptions.

The Annual
Report.

AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES.

ASSOCIATED
SOCIETIES.

XVill RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Associates shall not receive the Annual Report
gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on
any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in
the Association.

(iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the
same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s
Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment
of One Pound.

3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the
General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They
shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership.

4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual
Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may
make payment at any time before the close of the financial
year on June 30 of the following year.

5. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded
gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it.

Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter-
mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report
at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a
year shall be entitled to purchase, at the same price, the
volume for that year.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of
publication can only be issued by direction of the Council.

Cuaprer XI.
Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates.
Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows :

1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves-
tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.

Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate,
who must be or become a Member of the Associa-
tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates. He shall be ex officio a Member of
the General Committee.

(ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the British
Association.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. Xix

Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con-
ference. Such Delegates must be or become either
Members or Associates of the British Association,
and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed
by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member-
ship of the General Committee. —

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed
on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must
be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of
June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended
it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies
desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the
publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an-
nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the
General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the
papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com-
mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and
shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre-
sponding Societies as they may consider desirable.

(i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year
to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or
before June 1, such particulars in regard to the
Society as may be required for the information of
the Corresponding Societies Committee.

(ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the
Association a list of the papers published by
the Corresponding Societies during the preceding
twelve months which contain the results of local
scientific work conducted by them—those papers
only being included which refer to subjects coming
under the cognisance of one or other of the several
Sections of the Association.

4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti-
tute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairman,
and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by
the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The
members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be
ex officio members of the Conference.

(i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by

the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during
a2

Applications,

CORRE-
SPONDING
SOCIETIES
COMMITTEE.

Procedure.

CONFERENCE
OF DELE-
GATES.

Procedureand
Functions.

Alterations.

xx RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall
be empowered to invite any Member or Associate
to take part in the discussions.

(ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to
submit Resolutions to the Committee. of Recom-
mendations for their consideration, and for report
to the General Committee.

(iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall
be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda-
tions to be made to the General Committee bearing
on matters in which the co-operation of Corre-
sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com-
petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of
Delegates to invite the authors of such recom-
mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference
in order to give verbal explanations of their objects
and of the precise way in which they desire these
to be carried into effect.

(iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make
themselves familiar with the purport of the several
recommendations brought before the Conference,
in order that they may be able to bring such re-
commendations adequately before their respective
Societies.

(v) The Conference may also discuss propositions
regarding the promotion of more systematic ob-
servation and plans of operation, and of greater
uniformity in the method of publishing results.

Cuaprer XII.
Amendments and New Rules.

Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments
or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or
individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred
forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the
report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at
the last meeting of the General Committee.

TRUSTEES, GENERAL OFFICERS, &c., 1831-1914.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 28 R. I. MurcuHison (Bart.),
B.S.

1832-62 teen TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., ERS.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.

1898-

1872— fSir J. LuBBock, Bart. (after-

1913 {| wards Lord AVEBURY), F.R.S.

1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
RS

1883— Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards
PLAYFAIR, F.R.S8.
Prof. (Sir) A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacMAnon, F.R.S.

Lord)

1913-

GENERAL TREASURERS.

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.

1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.
1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

1891-98 Prof. (Sir) A. W. RUCKER,
E.R.S.
1898-1904 Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S.

1904— ~~ Prof. JoHN PERRY, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
E.R.S.

1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, |
¥.R.S., and F. Barby, Esq., |
F.R.S.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MurRcHISON,
Esq., F.R.8.

1836-37

1881

|
Secretary. |

1871-72 Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL FostTeErR, F.R.S.
1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.R.S.
1881-82 Capt. D. Gauron, F.R.5., and
Prof. F, M. BALFouR, F.R.S.
1882-83 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1837-39 R. I. Murcuison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S. 1883-95 Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcuison, F-.R.S., and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S. Esq., F.R.S.

1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E.SABINE,F.R.S. | 1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Hsq.,
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and WAS. wanes Prot, 1. A.
J. F. Roy ye, Esq., F.R.S. ScHAFER, F.R.S.

1852-53 J. F. RoyLe®, Esq., F.R.S. 1897- {or ScHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir
1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S. 1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S. 1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
1861-62 W. HopKIns, Esq., F.R.S. F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scort,

1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and F.R.S.
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S. 1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., and
1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and MajorP. A. MAcCMAHON, F.R.S.
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S8. 1903-13 Major P. A. MACMAHON, F.R.S.,
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.8. and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN,
~ 1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and F.R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. 1913— Prof. W. A. HERDMAN, F.R.S.,
1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S., and Dr. | and Prof. H.H.TURNER, F.R.S.
; T, THOMSON, F.R.S.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES, &c.: 1831-1904.
1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. ; 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, FBS,
1832 Prof. J. D. Forsss, Acting | Secretary.
Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
1832-62 Prof. JoHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S. Secretary.
1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. | 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Hsq., M.A., Acting
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting Secretary.

1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.
1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D.

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES.

1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpown, Esq., B.A.
1904-09 A. SILVA WHITE, Esq.

1909- O.J.R. Howarrtn, Esq., M.A.

XXli PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association,
1901-1913.

(The List of Sectional Officers for 1914 will be found on p. xlvi.)

Secretaries
(Ree, = Recorder)

Date and Place Presidents

SECTION A.'—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

1901. Glasgow ...{ Major P.A. MacMahon, ¥.R.8.|H. S. Carslaw, C. H. Lees (Ree.), W.
| —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Stewart, Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.
| H.H. Turner, F.R.S.
1902. Belfast...... Prof. J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.1.A.;H. 8. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A.
| —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Larmor, C. H. Lees (Rec.), Prof,
| A. Schuster, F.R.S. | W. B. Morton, A. W. Porter.
1903. Southport |C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S8.—Dep.|D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
of Astronomy and Meteor-| H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees
ology,Dr.W.N.Shaw,F.R.S.| (Rec.), J. Loton, A. W. Porter.
1904. Cambridge | Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Swb-| A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Section of Astronomy and| Dr. C. H. Lees (Rec.), Dr. W. J.8.
Cosmical Physics, Sir J.) Lockyer, A. W. Porter, W. C D.

Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.B.S. | Whetham.

1905. SouthAfrica’ Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,|A. R. Hinks, 8. S. Hough, R. T. A.
| E.RS. Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees
| (Ree.).

1906. York......... Principal E. H.Griffiths, F.R.S8.| Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker,

A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter
(fec.), H. Dennis Taylor.
1907. Leicester..., Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.,/E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon,

| F.B.S. | Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks,
| | Prof, A. W. Porter (Ree.).
1908. Dublin ...... Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. ......,;Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G.

| Filon, E. Gold, Prof. J. A.
McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter
| | (ee.), Prof. E. T. Whittaker.
1909. Winnipeg | Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S....| Prof. F. Allen, Prof. J. C. Fields,
E. Gold, F. Horton, Prof. A. W.
Porter (#ec.), Dr. A. A. Rambaut.
1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. E, W. Hobson, F.R.S....|H. Bateman, A. S. Eddington, E.
Gold, Dr. F. Horton, Dr. 8. R.
Milner, Prof. A. W. Porter ( Rec.).
1911, Portsmouth! Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.8. ...!H. Bateman, Prof. P. V. Bevan, A.S.
| Eddington, E. Gold, Prof. A. W.
Porter (Rec.), P. A. Yapp.
1912. Dundee ...| Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S.) Prof. P. V. Bevan, EH. Gold, Dr. H. B.
| Heywood, R. Norrie, Prof. A. W.
Porter (Rec.), W. G. Robson, F.
J. M. Stratton.
1915. Birmingham) Dr. H. ¥. Baker, F.R.S. ......; Prof. P. V. Bevan (#ec.), Prof. A. 8.
| Eddington, E. Gold, Dr. H. B.
| Heywood, Dr. A. O. Rankine, Dr.
G. A. Shakespear.

1 Section A was constituted under this title in 1835, when the sectional division
was introduced. The previous division was into ‘Committees of Sciences.’

Date and Place Presidents

1901.
1902.

1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.

1910.

1911.
1912.

1913.

1901.
1902.

1903.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13). xxiii

Secretaries
- = xe eau

SECTION B.”—CHEMISTRY
Glasgow ...| Prof. Percy F. Frankland, ae C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,

E.R.S. W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose (Ree.).
Belfast...... Prof, E. Divers, F.R.S... oR. F, Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.
G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope
(Rec.).
Southport | Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc.,| Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
F.R.S. derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope
|_ (Ree.).

Cambridge | Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S....| Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof.
W. J. Pope (Rec.).

SouthAfrica| George T. Beilby ............... |W. A. Caldecott, Mr. M. O. Forster,
Prof. G. G. Henderson (Rec.), C.F.

Juritz.
VOLK ony tes Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan,| Dr. E. F.Armstrong, Prof. A.W. Cross-
E.R.S. | ley,S.H. Davies, Prof. W. J. Pope

(Ree.).
Leicester ...| Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ...|Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.

Crossley (#ec.), J. H. Hawthorn,
Dr. F. M. Perkin.

Dublin...... Prof. F. 8. Kipping, F.R.S....|Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr. A.
McKenzie, Dr. F., M. Perkin, Dr.
| ,J. H. Pollock.

Winnipeg...| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. T.
| M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, J. W.

Shipley.
Sheffield ...|J. E. Stead, F.R.S. .........006 Dr. KE. F. Armstrong (Ree. br.
M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, W.
E. 8. Turner.
Sub-section of Agriculture—|Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr.
A. D. Hall, F.R.S. E. J. Russell.

Portsmouth| Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S. ......;Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Ree.), Dr.
C. H. Desch, Dr. T. M. Lowry,
Dr. F. Beddow.

Dundee ...|Prof. A. Senier, M.D. ......... Dr, E. F. Armstrong (ec.), Dr. C.
H. Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. J. K.
Wood.

Birmingham| Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S. ...| Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. C. H.

Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. H.
McCombie.

SECTION C.3—GEOLOGY.

Glasgow ... John Horne, F.R.S. ............ H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton
(Rec.).
Belfast...... Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon, H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton
F.R.S. (Ree.), J. St. J. Phillips, H. J.
Seymour.
Southport Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A., H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
M.Sc. J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton (Rec.).

2 «Chemistry and Mineralogy,’ 1835-1894,
’ ‘Geology and Geography,’ 1835-1850.

XXIV

Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries

PRESIDENTS AND SECKETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

(Rec. = Recorder)

1904. Cambridge | Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. ......|H. L. Bowman (Ree.), Rev. W. L.

1905.

1906.
1907.
1908.

1909.

1910.

1911,

1912.

1913.

1901.
1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.

Carter, J. Lomas, H. Woods.

SouthAfrica, Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc.,|H. L. Bowman (Rec.), J. Lomas, Dr.

E.R.S. Molengraaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof.
R. B. Young,

--|G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S.......]H. L. Bowman (Ree.), Rev. W. L.

Carter, Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas.

Leicester... Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....|Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter,

Dublin..,.

Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas ( Rec.)

..| Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. ......|Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas (Rec.),

Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, H. J. Sey-
mour.

Winnipeg...|Dr. A. Smith Woodward,!W.L. Carter (Ree.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry-

Sheffield

F.R.S. house, R. IT, Hodgson, Prof. S. H.
Reynolds.

...| Prof. A. P. Coleman, F.R.S...|W.L. Carter (fec.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry-

house, B. Hobson, Prof. 8S. H.
Reynolds.

Portsmouth| A. Harker, F.R.S. .........2..06 Col. C. W. Bevis, W. L. Carter ( Rec.),

Dundee

Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. 8.
H. Reynolds.

..|Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S. ......|Prof. W. B. Boulton, A. W. RB. Don,

Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse (fec.),
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds.

Birmingham) Prof. E. J. Garwood, M.A....|Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. A. R.

Dwerryhouse (Rec.), F. Raw,
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds.

SECTION D.‘—ZOOLOGY.

Glasgow ... Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.'J. G. Kerr (Ree.), J. Rankin, J. Y.
Simpson.
Belfast...... Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...| Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.
| Simpson (fec.).
Southport Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.R.S....'Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft,
: A. Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Simpson
(Rec.), Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Cambridge William Bateson, F.R.S.......'Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson (#ec.), Dr. H.
| W. M. Tims.
SouthAfrica G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. ...... Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Dr. H. W. M.
| Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson (Rec.).
MOTE creces se J. J. Lister, F.R.S. ............| Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster.
Oxley Grabham, Dr. H.W. M. Tims
(Rec.).
Leicester... Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A.......e«/Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L, Doncaster,
E. EH. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Ree.).
Dublin...... Dr. 8S. F. Harmer, F.B.S....... Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. A. Fraser, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Rec.).
Winnipeg...! Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ... C. A. Baragar, C. L. Boulenger, Dr.

J. Pearson, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Rec.).

* «Zoology and Botany,’ 1835-1847 ; ‘Zoology and Botany, including Physiology,’
1848-1865 ; ‘ Biology,’ 1866-1894.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13). x

9)
4

Secretaries

Date and Place Presidents (Rec. = Recorder)

1910. Sheffield ...|Prof. G. C. Bourne, F.R.S. ...|Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
T. J. Evans, Dr. H. W. M. Tims

Rec.).
1911. Portsmouth| Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, ie J.H. Ashworth, C. Foran, R. D.
C.B. Laurie, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (#ec.).
1912. Dundee ...|Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,|Dr. J. H. Ashworth, R. D. Laurie,
F.R.S. Miss D. L. Mackinnon, Dr. H. W.
M. Tims (Ree.).
1913. Birmingham | Dr. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S.......!Dr. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. C. L.

Boulenger, R. D. Laurie, Dr. H.
W. M. Tims (fee.).

SECTION E2—GEOGRAPHY.

1901. Glasgow ...| Dr. H. R. Mill, F.B.G-S. ......|H. N. Dickson (Rec.), E. Heawood,
G. Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

1902. Belfast...... Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ...|G. G. Chisholm (Rec.), E. Heawood,
Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A.
Lindsay.

1903. Southport... |Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,|E. Heawood (fee.), Dr. A. J. Her-

ERS. bertson, EH. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C.

Underwood.

1904. Cambridge | Douglas W. Freshfield......... E. Heawood ( Rec.), Dr. A.J. Herbert-

son, H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves.
1905. SouthAfrica|Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton,|A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers,

R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S. Dr. A. J. Herbertson (Pec.), H. Y.
Oldham.
W062 York, ....3.. Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie,|E. Heawood (Rec.), Dr. A. J. Her-
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. bertson, E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld.

1907. Leicester ...|George G. Chisholm, M.A. ...|E. Heawood (Rece.), O. J. R. How-
arth, E. A. Reeves, T. Walker.

1908. Dublin....., Major E. H. Hills, C.M.G.,|W. F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. R.
R.E. Howarth (Rec.), E. A. Reeves.

1909. Winnipeg... | Col. SirD. Johnston,K.C.M.G.,|G. G. Chisholm (fec.), J. McFar-
C.B., R.E. lane, A. McIntyre.

1910. Sheffield ...|Prof. A. J. Herbertson, M.A.,|Rev. W. J. Barton (ec.), Dr. RB.
Ph.D. Brown, J. McFarlane, KH. A. Reeves.

1911. Portsmouth |Col. C. F. Close, R.E., C.M.G.|J. McFarlane (Rec.), HE, A. Reeves,

W. P. Smith.

1912. Dundee ...,Col. Sir ©. M. Watson,|Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec.), J. McFar-

K.C.M.G. lane, E. A. Reeves, D. Wylie.

1913, Birmingham |Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc. ...|Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec ), P. E. Mar-
tineau, J. McFarlane, E.A. Reeves.

SECTION F..—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1901. Glasgow ... Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S. W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
| Cannan (itec.), 8. J. Chapman.

1902. Belfast ..,|E, Cannan, M.A., LL.D. ...... \A, L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. 8. J.
| Chapman, Dr. A. Duffin.

5 Section E was that of ‘Anatomy and Medicine, 1835-1840; of ‘ Physiology ’
(afterwards incorporated in Section D), 1841-1847. It was assigned to ‘ Geography
and Ethnology,’ 1851-1868 ; ‘Geography, 1869.

§ « Statistics,’ 1835-1855.

XXV1

Date and Place |

1903

1904,

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.

1913.

1901.

1902.
1903.

1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909,

1910.

1911

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

Southport

Cambridge

SouthAfrica

feneeeene

Leicester ...

Dublin

Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
Dundee

Birmingham

Glasgow ...

Belfast
Southport

Cambridge

SouthAfrica
Leicester ...
Dublin

Winnipeg...

Sheffield ..

. Portsmouth

a|brot J. Perry, WoRAS. sesdseces

Secretaries

Presidents (Rec. = Recorder)

KW. Brabrook, €.B:,. ..Sic:-.

A. L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. S. J.
Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G.
Lloyd.

Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D.......|J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley (Rec.),

Prof. 8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W.

| Ginsburg.

Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.,|R.aAbabrelton, A. L. Bowley (Rec.),
D.Se. Prof. H. E. §. Fremantle, H. O.

Meredith.

A. Wu; Bowley; M.A. .......c0s: ‘Prof. 8. J. Chapman (Rec.), D. H.

Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, B.

S. Rowntree.

Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A....... Prof. 8. J. Chapman (#ec.), D. H.
Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, T.S.
Taylor.

W. M. Acworth, M.A. ......... W.G. 8. Adams, Prof. 8. J. Chap-

man (fee.), Prof. D. H. Macgre-
gor, H. O. Meredith.
Sub-section of Agriculture— A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H.
Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett. Priestley, Prof. J. Wilson.
Prof. S. J. Chapman, M.A. ... Prof. A. B. Clark, Dr. W. A. Mana-
han, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.).
Smith, C. R. Fay, H. O. Meredith (Rec.),
Dr. W. R. Scott, R. Wilson.
C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.),
H, A, Stibbs.

Sir H. Llewellyn
K.C.B., M.A.
Hon. W. Pember Reeves

.| Sir H.H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.), E.

Tosh.

Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A. ©. R. Fay, Prof, A. W. Kirkaldy,
Prof. H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. R.
Scott (Rec.).

SECTION G.’—ENGINEERING.

R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E. |H. Bamford, W. E. Dalby, W. A. Price
| (Ree.).
|M. Barr, W. A. Price (ec.), J. Wylie.
..|Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T. Maccall,
| W.A. Price (Rec.).
Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S. ...|J. B. Peace, W.T. Maccall, W. A. Price
| (Ree.).
Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff, W. 'T. ee B. Marshall (Rec.),
G.C.S.L, K.C.M.G., R.E. | Prof. H. Payne, E. Williams.
J AEWine HW Sc.cceccccseese W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price (Rec.),
| J. Triffit.
Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, |Prof. BE. G. Coker, A. C. Harris,
F.R.S. |_ W.A. Price (Ree.), H. E.Wimperis.
Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. ......... | Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly,
: | W.A. Price (Ree.), H. E. Wimperis.
Sir W. H. White, K.C.B.,|E. E. Brydone-Jack, Prof. E. G.Coker,
E.RB.S. | Prof. E. W. Marchant, W. A. Price
(Rec.).
Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A., F. Boulden, Prof. E. G. Coker (Ree.),
M.Inst.C.E. | A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
Prof. J. H. Biles, LL.D., H. Ashley, Prof. E. G. Coker (Ree.),
D.Se. | A, A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.H.

* «Mechanical Science,’ 1826-1900.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13). = xxvii

Date and Place | Presidents ( Ree. = Recorder
1912, Dundee ...| Prof, A. EES D. ae. Raessestacvael Prof. E. G. fae ae », A. R. Ful-

ton, H. Richardson, A. A. Rowse,
H. E. Wimperis.
1913. Birmingham | Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng.... Prof. E. G. Coker (tec.), J. Purser,
| A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

SECTION H.*A—ANTHROPOLOGY.

1901. Glasgow ...|Prof. D. J. Cunningham, W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.
| ERS. Gemmill, J. L. Myres (Rec.).
1902. Belfast ... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon
J. L. Myres (Rec.).
1903. Southport... Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S.... E. N. Fallaize, H. 8S. Kingsford,
E. M. Littler, J. L. Myres (Ree.).
1904. Cambridge A. Balfour, MCA.” .cccsecsdesess W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize,
H.S. Kingsford, J. iit Myres (Rec.).
1905. SouthAfrica Dr. A, C, Haddon, F.B.S. ... A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, E. S.
| Hartland (Rec.).
1906. York....:.<:. |E. Sidney Hartland, F.S.A.... Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize
(Rec.), H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F, C.
Shrubsall.
1907. Leicester .. 'D. G. Hogarth, M.A............. C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize (Rec.),
H.S. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrub-
| sall.
1908, Dublin ..... Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. ... E.N. Fallaize (#ec.), H. S. Kings-
| ford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, L. E.
i Steele.
1909. Winnipeg... Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. ...... H. 8, Kingsford (Ree.), Prof. C. J.
| Patten, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1910. Sheffield ... W. Crooke, B.A. ...........000. E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kings-
ford, Prof. C. J. Patten, Dr. F.C.
Shrubsall.
1911. Portsmouth W. H. R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S. E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. S. Kings-
ford, E. W. Martindell, H. Rundle,
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1912. Dundee ... Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. D. D. Craig, E.N. Fallaize (Rec.), E.
W. Martindell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1913. Birmingham Sir Richard Temple, Bart. ... E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), E. W. Martin-
dell, Dr, F. C. Shrubsall, T. Yeates.

SECTION I.°—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExpERIMENTAL
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsYCHOLOGY).
1901. Glasgow ... | Prof.J.G. McKendrick, F.R.S.|W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.

W. H. Thompson (Rec.).
1902. Belfast ...|Prof. W. D. Halliburton, he Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne

F.R.S. (Rec.), Dr. C. Shaw.
1904. Cambridge | Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, F.R.S.| J. Barcroft (Rec.), Prof. T. G. Brodie,
Dr. L. E. Shore.

1905. SouthAfrica} Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S....|J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. Baumann,
Dr. Mackenzie, Dr. G. W. Robert-
son, Dr. Stanwell.

8 Established 1884. § Established 1894.

XXvill PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-13).

| Secretaries

| . |
Date and Place 2 Presidents | (Rec. = Recorder)

1906. York......... Prof, F. Gotch, F.R.S. vesseesee J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. J. M. Hamill,
| | Prof. J. 8. Maedonald, Dr. D. 8.
| | Long.

1907. Leicester ...|Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ...... Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft (Ree.),
| Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr. A.
| Warner.

1908. Dublin...... Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S. Prof. D. J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring,

Prof, J. S. Macdonald, Dr. H. E.
Roaf (Rec.).

1909. Winnipeg... , Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.... Dr. N.H. Alcock (Ree.), Prof. P. T.

| Herring, Dr. W. Webster.

1910. Sheffield ... Prof, A. B. Macallum, F.R.S. Dr. H. G. M. Henry, Keith Lucas,

Dr. H. E. Roaf (#ec.), Dr. J. Tait.

1911. Portsmouth Prof. J. 8S. Macdonald, B.A. Dr. J. T. Leon, Dr, Keith Lucas,

Dr. H. E. Roaf (Ree.), Dr. J. Tait.

1912. Dundee ... lisconand 78 ORD Sl 5 Seescenence Dr. Keith Lucas, W. Moodie, Dr.
H. E. Roaf (Rec.), Dr. J. Tait.

1913. Birmingham Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins, C. L. Burt, Prof. P, T. Herring, Dr.

1901.

1902.
1903.
1904.

1905.
1906.

1907.
1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

F.R.S. T. G. Maitland, Dr. H. E. Roaf
(itec.), Dr. J. Tait.

SECTION K.'°—BOTANY.

Glasgow ... Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ... D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, G. F. Scott-
Elliot, A. C. Seward (Rec.), H
Wager.

Belfast ... Prof. J. R. Green, F.RS....... A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,
H. Wager (fec.), R. H. Yapp.

Southport |A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ......... H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager
(ftec,), R. H. Yapp.

Cambridge Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ...... Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,

Sub-section of Agriculture— HH. Wager(Rec.), T. B. Wood, R. H.
Dr. W. Somerville. Yapp.

SouthAfrica Harold Wager, F.R.S. ......... R. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof.
Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp (#ec.).

SViOnEG. coesnee Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ... Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
A. G. Tansley (fec.), Prof. R. H.
Yapp

Leicester... Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ... W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G.
Tansley (fec.), Prof. R. H. Yapp.

Dublinve.-.. Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S.... Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory,
A. G. Tansley (Aec.), Prof. R. H.

Yapp.
Winnipeg... Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, O.1E., Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T.
F.R.S. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof, R. H.Yapp

Sub-section of Agriculture— (fec.).
Major P. G. Craigie, C.B. W.J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof.
J. Wilson.
Sheffield ... Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S B.H. Bentley, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.
: R. H. Yapp (£ece.).
Portsmouth Prof. F. H. Weiss, D.Sc. ...... C. G. Delahunt, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, Prof.
R. H. Yapp (fee.).
Sub-section of Agriculture— J. Golding, H. R. Pink, Dr. E. J.
W. Bateson, M.A., F.R.S. Russell.

‘0 Established 1895.

Date and Place |

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-18).

XX1x

es
Presidents

. Secretaries
(ee; = Recorder)

1912.

1913.

1901.

1902,

1903.

1904.

1905.
1906.
1907.

1908.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.

1913.

1912,

1913. Birmingham | Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A.

Dundee . | Prof. F, mechies DISC aseces:
Birmingham Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S....

sole eeceen Prof. (5 ate Gane

Vaughan (Rec.), Dr. C. E. Moss,
D. Thoday.

W. B. Grove, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan (fec.), Dr. C. E. Moss,
D. Thoday.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

...) R. A, Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y.

Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof,
H. L. Withers (Rece,).

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Rec.), R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W,
Kimmins, Prof. H. L. Withers.

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Ree.), Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H.
L. Snape.

.|J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,

W. M. Heller (Rec.), Dr. C. W.
Kimmins,

A.D. Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins (fee.), J. R. Whitton.
Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Helier

(Rec.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory
(Ree.), J. S. Laver, Hugh Rich-
ardson.

Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar,
George Fletcher, Prof. R. A.
Gregory (fec.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L.
Holland (fec.), Hugh Richardson.

A. J. Armmold, W. D. Eggar, J. L.
Holland ( Ree.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, O. Freeman, J. L.
Holland (Rec.), Hugh Richardson.

D. Berridge, Dr. J. Davidson, Prof.
J. A. Green (Rec.), Hugh Richard-

son.

E. H. Griffiths,)D. Berridge, Rev. S. Blofeld, Prof.

J. A. Green (Rec.), H. Richard-
son.

Glasgow ...|Sir John E. Gorst, F.R.S.
Belfast .| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.
Southport ..|Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Cambridge | Bishop of Hereford, D.D.
SouthAfrica| Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L.,
M.P.
Work cccevec | Prof, M. E. Sadler, LL.D. ...
Leicester ...|Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. .....
Dublin ...... Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.R.S: ......
Winnipeg...| Rev. H. B. Gray, D.D.......
Sheffield ...| Principal H. A. Miers, F.R.S.
Portsmouth | Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon,
D.D.
Dundee ...| Prof. J. Adams, M.A. ......
Birmingham Principal
| E.RS.
SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.
Dundee .,./T. H. Middleton, M.A........

..|Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr. A.

Lauder, Dr. E. J. Russell (ec.).
W. E. Collinge, Dr. C. Crowther,
| J. Golding, Dr. E. J. Russell (Rec.).

XXX CHAIRMEN AND SECRETARIES OF CONFERENCES OF DELEGATES.

CHAIRMEN anp SECRETARIES or tae CONFERENCES OF
DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 1901-14.!

Date and Place Chairmen Secretaries
1901. Glasgow ... F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. .......... Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Somerville.
1902 Belfast...... Prof. W. W. Watts, F.G.S. ... E. J. Bles.
1903. Southport.. W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... F. W. Rudler.

1904. Cambridge Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. EF. W. Rudler.
1905. London ... Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F. W. Rudler.

F.R.S.
1906. York......... Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.... F. W. Rudler.
1907. Leicester... H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0.
1908. Dublin ...... Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S....... W. P. D. Stebbing.
1909. London ... Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... W. P. D. Stebbing.
1910. Sheffield ... Dr. Tempest Anderson......... W. P. D. Stebbing.
191: Portsmouth Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S..... W. P. D. Stebbing.

1912. Dundee ... Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ..1W. P. D. Stebbing.

1913. Birmingham Dr. P. Chalmers ee P. D. Stebbing.
F.R.S.

1914. Le Havre... Sir H. George Fordham ... Iw. Mark Webb.

EVENING DISCOURSES, 1901-1914.

Date and Place Lecturer | Subject of Discourse
1901. Glasgow ... Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S........ The Inert Constituents of the
| Atmosphere.
Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ...... The Movements of Plants.

1902. Belfast ... Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S..... Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. Inheritance.

1903. Southport... Dr. R. Munro .............0000+ ‘Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
| Palzolithic Period.
Dr. As ROW. .csdevccecccesowacss The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its
Teachings.
1904. Cambridge Prof.G. H. Darwin, F.R.S.... Ripple-Marks and Sand-Dunes.
Prof. H. F. Osborn ............ Paleontological Discoveries in the
1905. South Rocky Mountains.
Africa: |
Cape Town ... Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.... W. J. Burchell’s Discoveries in South
Africa.
lo. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. ...... Some Surface Actions of Fluids.
Durban ..., Douglas W. Freshfield......... 'The Mountains of the Old World.

| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F¥.R.S. Marine Biology.
Pietermaritz- Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S.... Sleeping Sickness.

burg. jal, UE LS Oe nee Accopptodanancceo The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’

Johannesburg Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S.... The Distribution of Power.
Prof. J. O. Arnold............... Steel as an Igneous Rock.

Pretoria ... A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ......... Fly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep-
| ing Sickness, &c.

Bloemfontein... A. R. Hinks .........csceeeeeeeee The Milky Way and the Clouds of
| Magellan.

Kimberley... Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S........ Diamonds.

: [Profisds es POnsen..st>.-scecons 'The Bearing of Engineering on

| Mining.

Bulawayo’ ._...._D. Randall-Maclver............ The Ruins of Rhodesia.

1 Established 1885.

1906,
1907.

1908.
1909.

Date and Place Lecturer

Wii eareaqaen Dr. Tempest Reena asaleccees
Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ....

Leicester ...| W. Duddell, F.R.S. ............
Drs WAS DIXCY cavcseccossacneges

Dublin’ ....:3 Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...
Prof We Wis Davis *2.52-c--5c8

Winnipeg...|Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.B.S....
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
1 Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.... |
1 Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.

Sheffield ...| Prof. W. Stirling, M.D. ......

1910.
1911.

1912.
1913.

1914.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

XxXxl1

Subject of Discourse

'D. G. Hogarth

Portsmouth Dr. Leonard Hill, F.R.S.......

Dundee

Birmingham

Australia :
Adelaide

Melbourne
Sydney ...

Brisbane

| Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ...
.| Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S. ...

Prof. A. Keith, M.D.............
Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B.

Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
K.-S:

Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ..
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S ...
Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S. ..
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S.
Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S.

Prof. H, E. Armstrong, F.R.
Prof. G. W. O. Howe

Pet eee eee

aiesanes

-|The Electrical Signs of Life, and
their Abolition by Chloroform.

The Ark and the Spark in Radio-
telegraphy.

Recent Developments in the Theory
of Mimicry.

Halley’s Comet.

The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon.

The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi-
tecture.

Our Food from the Waters.

The Chemistry of Flame.

The Pressure of Light.

Types of Animal Movement.”

‘New Discoveries about the Hittites.

The Physiology of Submarine Work.

Links with the Past in the Plant
World.

Radiations Old and New.

‘The Antiquity of Man.

Explosions in Mines and the Means
of Preventing them,
Missing Links among

Animals,

Extinct

The Ether of Space.

. Ancient Hunters.

Mimicry.

.|Greenwich Observatory.

Primitive Man.

.|Atoms and Electrons.
S.|The Materials of Life.

Wireless Telegraphy.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Lecture

1901.

1902.
1903.

1904.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1910.
1911.

Glasgow

Belfast
Southport...

Cambridge..
Viork'..<<caes
Dublin
Sheffield ...

Portsmouth | Dr. H. R. Mill

...|H. J. Mackinder, M.A..........

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ..
Drie Sa WUletihy ccaccestcdeswasns
Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S. .

Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F. RS.
.| Prof. H. A. Miers, F.RB.S...
Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.RS.
C. T. Heycock, F.R.S. ...

stew eee e eee enseee

aK Popular Lectures,’ delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg.

The Movements of Men - Tene
and Sea.

..|Gnats and Mosquitoes.

Martinique and St. Vincent:
Eruptions of 1902.

./ The Forms of Mountains.

The Manufacture of Light.

.|The Growth of a Crystal.

The Crystallisation of Water.

the

.| Metallic Alloys.
| Rain.

2 Repeated, to the public, on Wednesday, September 7.

XXxXll

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

PUBLIC OR CITIZENS’ LECTURES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Lecture

1912. Dundee

1913. Birmingham

1914. Australia:
Perth

Adelaide
Melbourne

Sydney ...

Brisbane

.. Prof. B. Moore, D.Sc. .........

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.

Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ......
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...
Dr. Vaughan Cornish .........
Leonard Doncaster, M.A.

| Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. .
|Frederick Soddy, F.R.S.......

...| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof, A. 8. Eddington, F.R.S.
I; Balfour, WvisA 5 cesccecss cose
Prof. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ...

iC. A. Buckmaster, M.A. ......
Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.

Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ...
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ..
Prof, B. Moore, F.R.S..........
Prof. H. H. Turner, P.R.S. ...
Dr, A. ©. Haddon, F.R.S.

Science and National Health.

| Prices and Wages.

'The Sun.

The Decorative Art of Savages.
;The Panama Canal.

..| Recent Work on Heredity and its

Application to Man.

..|Metals under the Microscope.

|Tbe Evolution of Matter,

Why we Investigate the Ocean.

Stars and their Movements.

Primitive Methods of Making Fire.

Electrical Action of the Human
Heart.

Mining Education in England.

Saving and Spending.

Making of a Big Gun.

.| Explosions.

Brown Earth and Bright Sunshine.
Comets.

.| Decorative Art in Papua.

GRAN(S

MONEY.

XXX111

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes, 1901-1913.

1901.
Pianta.
Electrical Standards ......... 45 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0
Wave-length Tables............ 414
Isomorphous Sulphonic De-

rivatives of Benzene ...... 35 (0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 20 0
Underground Water of North-

west Yorkshire ............... 50 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

1100; Naples «..2..20sc.+2cs0e. 100 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0
Index Generum et Specierum

init se 6106 Bo pespeee peep ono: oo 75 0
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 5 O
Changes of Land-level in the

Phlegrzan Fields............ 50 O
Legislation regulating Wo-

THEM SAD OUT cece: saseassacse 15 0
Smail Screw Gauge............ 45 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

HOMEPACTIONG wtanscep accueil 75 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0
Ethnological Survey of

AACA fe didesc tolcacdnmaeenetes 30 0
Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0
Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

iNDINE eA > jdeeeenacnasacedesusddarecn 30 0
Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 151
Suprarenal Capsules in the

PMs reiede ccciowss <cney once DL On, 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Morphology, Ecology, and

Taxonomy of Podoste-

EAGER erscslachscitevineseinaaesece 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

BMT Eateries aplelarnis elses jee Ia 5 15 0 0

£920 9 11
1902.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 35 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

BIOS) Foc cwatassstaleeeceae aces + 75 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

BTETIG:. vcavuee siden demars.cbelicssewe 80 0 0
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Organic Sub-

UICOS Rl on canara ce css dcaiinne sis 20 0 0

1914.

a=) ooo oo oo o ooo i=) lo) oo o i=) ooo

£83. ds
Wave-length Tables............ Ey Oe)
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 0
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples ............... ACOLO MM COP" C0)
Index Generum et Specierum

AMIMALIMIN sexes saeesess <t os¥ee 100 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 16 0.0
Structure of Coral Reefs of

Indian Ocean..............+.: 50 0 0
Compound Ascidians of the

Olyde: Areas<.ssiccaactessa senses 25 0.0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15 0 OQ
Legislation regulating Wo-

MEN(SMOADOUI ewe rne oct ese eee BORON O
Small Screw Gauge ............ 20 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

LOMUPACHION.. wenn -ecaesesearehn. 50 0 O
Ethnological Survey of

Canadat tates cctsiscss senses Ide On 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Exploration in Crete............ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Investigation

of Native Egyptian Soldiers 15 0 0
Excavations on the Roman

Site at Gelligaer ............ a0) 0
Changes in Hemoglobin ..... Lae (OO)
Work of Mammalian Heart

under Influence of Drugs... 20 0 0

| Investigation of the Cyano-
le gps. COR Paw. ccstantroctere tec LOMO)» .0
Reciprocal Influence of Uni-

versities and Schools ...... Di Oe O
Conditions of Health essen-

tial to carrying on Work in

DEHOOIS igen. Geetncatsnekaces 2 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MAUL ERs sen nteih cateees hiss san. DO OeO

£947 G 0
1903.
Electrical Standards............ 35 9 6
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

ISTHOS Wiecar ance fannewevee ss sues 75 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOULIN ai datstestesctatelee echeatehcweore is 40 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BUANCESIN aweienaa site ecient siege 20 0 0
Erratic Blocks .................. LOMFOMRO
Exploration of Irish Caves... 40 0 0
Underground Watersof North-

west Yorkshire ............... 40 0 6

XXX1V

ese
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 5 0
Geological Photographs ...... 10 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples .............. 100 O
Index Generum et Specierum

AniIMAlMM ye ssnceeseasccnashs 100 O
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and

IBGACHES Guest ressanuctipencenes 15 0
Scottish National Antarctic

HxXpeditionycecsecssassesecssse 50 0
Legislation affecting Women’s

Mia OUT ene ieaeectectaneeenit are OM)
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 3.13
Anthropometric Investigation 5 0
Anthropometry of the Todas

and other Tribes of Southern

MACE vais seems sot soeseiancenee es 50 0
The State of Solution of Pro-

DEIGS ses essacatasssassescvesetensi’s 20 0
Investigation of the Cyano-

DU. COLe wane qasasceascectsesesne 25 0
Respiration of Plants ......... 12 0
Conditions of Health essential

for School {Instruction ...... 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

AUWODEC le sie vaste ous eantireensis e's 20 0

£845 13
1904.
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

IKGGOS Rc sities eine costonseedcvencee 50 0 O
Magnetic Observations at

Halmouthigirsncrs ce oeheeeste 60 0 0
Wave-lengthTablesof Spectra 10 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SUNS! pegsgonddassosoconboccce 25 0 0
Mirrabic BLOCKS eresss se sceceneve 10 0 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 35 0 0
Fauna and Flora of the

EBENE! -enedonccosadcaGobGnuera tas 10 0 0
Investigation of Fossiliferous

DIL tS cscesvieencauveenseseeret 50 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

iON; NAPLES yin rmesecseciestestls 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Amimallimml.spapeestss sees srile 60 0 0
Development in the Frog...... 15 0 0
Researches on the Higher

Crustacea, cicaecseecemeceoe er 15 0 0
British and Foreign Statistics

of International Trade...... 25 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

to Traction... .<....:0s0s0 » eae = 90 0) 10
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0 0
Researches in Glastonbury

25 0 0

Lake Village

SHOSS Ste) Ss ey Ss) joo)

|
|
|
|

|
|
|

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ os. d
Anthropometric Investigation
of Egyptian Troops ......... 810 0
Excavations on Roman Sites
UA BUUGATNG s maeeewne ee aeeeas 25 0-0
The State of Solution of Pro-
MELO? a5, pacmasctcenteuetemeaesties 200 0
Metabolism of Individual
|. SUNSSUCE? scrnccestaccewsonpimecetts AQ. (0
Botanical Photographs......... te Sl
Respiration of Plants... ........ 15 0 0
Experimental Studies in
Heredity,.-+.--:aseescstaessaente 35 0 O
Corresponding Societies Com-
MNIUSCEZascacense emcees eee seseeee 20 0 0
£887 eos!
1905.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0O
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Ratesitcsstcetsveccussesieasanaee 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
ILOUWUE apn cievecseuceesre te aanee 50 0 O
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
LUA iehre cieiesisee smcien seston tema eame eee Os 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances ............ agen 25 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 20 0 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 25 0 0
Faunaand Flora of the British
WIELAS! @ an salreictioe es ei euesetpeasaas 10 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples ....... Seeneysne! 100 0 O
Index Generum et Specierum
ATAUIN ALIN Mrwtecssetanesitdee cls 75 0 0
Development of the Frog 10 0 0
| Investigations in the Indian
(OSI soriodaasragaondorenercee- 150 0 0
Trade Statistics ...........2:.00++ 4 4 8
Researches in Crete ..........-- fre0.0
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions of Egyptian Troops... 10 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites
Thal 1S, ieBO ae = Qearp tr oo aoacaOCMIeC LOr0 >'O
AnthropometricInvestigations 10 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
The State of Solution of Pro-
GEUAS Meese avewanaatcceeseeitea skis > 20 0 0
Metabolism of Individual
SUNSENHES) sear cgootgne: Nasnoncepee 30 0 0
Ductless Glands........0...0006 a, 4050-0
Botanical Photographs......... 317 6
Physiology of Heredity......... 35 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants 50 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
PIMULEE a eomdenae sWadesieiiontacte 20 0 0
£928 2 2

GRANTS OF MONEY.

1906.
£ sd.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

CEO) Ti CN Oe ane ee ae 50 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

PMERIOGHY cs seeterees sts ieadaccaves te 99:12 6
Wave-length Tablesof Spectra 5 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BANOS. are cadazntes eh ccoren dee: 25 0: 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 10 0 0
Faunaand Flora of the British

BEVIS ceo Soll, PN 7 811
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 30 0
Table at the Zoological Sta

tion, Naples 42... 4 .ccivessees 100 0
Index Animalium ............... 75 0
Development of the Frog...... 10 0
aeher Crustacea, .......cc...0+5 To=0
Freshwater Fishes of South

EAT EIICE esas a is a ps 50 0
Rainfall and Lake and River

WISCUBTOS NS .leccnce. eee: 10 0
Excavations in Crete ......... 100 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 40 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

GIGLI Bescc.ccetoneereee ces 30 0
Anthropometric _Investiga-

tions in the British Isles... 30 0
State of Solution of Proteids 20 0
Metabolism of Individual

PRISHUCH Ue casitesen cet s eee. 20 O
Effect of Climate upon Health

PUNGDISCASE,.cscet.ccscacceveek 20 0
Research on South African

SAIGELG Cha senderrneaccoceeeco Bare 14 19
Peat Moss Deposits .,.......... 25 0
Studies suitable for Elemen-

Rear SCHOOIS' “ists. sescesace sree 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MLULCOMS cess recere coerce eae 25 O

£882 0
1907.
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Z

Halmionth 21.1 ee 8 eS 40 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

PRETO Dresses tee ees eee ae Zor eG
Wave-length Tables of

RIPCCLIAN IEE sents peered 10 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic

Substances .........6.c1cccedeees 30 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0
Life Zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 O
Hrratic Blocks’ .\............. Pee kOL EO
Fauna and Flora of Britis

LEER Aint an aed a 10 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone of

South-West England ...... 15 0 0

Correlation and Age of South
African Strata, &c. .........
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ........,..0608
Index Animalium
Development of the Sexual
Cells? =i acbsscsscedecscaaceaeons
Oscillations of the Land Level
in the Mediterranean Basin
Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom .
Anthropometric _Investiga-
tions in the British Isles...
Metabolism of Individual
TASSUCES Fecssscadedsestsreresteek
The Ductless Glands
Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease ...... scs.csseese
Physiology of Heredity
Research on South African
Oyeads, 8 ka tees tee oee eee
Botanical Photographs.....,...
Structure of Fossil Plants .
Marsh Vegetation.............08
| Corresponding Societies Com-
( SCMILLEG yas asheateedesenvae acres =

wee eeoeee

1908.

Seismological Observations ...
Further Tabulation of Bessel
Wunchionsyste.ss ee
Investigation of Upper Atmo-
sphere by means of Kites...
Meteorological Observations
On: BenwNeviss cess. tenets eececs

Wave-length Tables of Spectra
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
BUANCES, 220.3. shesek tit cetsecties
Dynamic Isomerism ............
Transformation of Aromatic
| Nitroamines
| Erratic Blocks ...........c..000.
Fauna and Flora of British
ETIAS! RA ee nee ak S|
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles

Pree e se eeeesseee

| Exact Significance of Local
EMMIS teeta ceceseet eee ace
|p MEROCKS anes terme bettas Sly om
Table at the Zoological Station
AWINaplesietctacdsesccescddces
Index Animalium ...............
Hereditary Experiments ......
Fauna of Lakes of Central
Tasmanialss sieves etessesccese

| Investigations in the Indian
Ocean

BORO ee tener ween eeeeeseees

XXXV
£ §. @.
10 0 0
100 0 0
75° 0 0

Eas °§
50 0 0

Sulgh y
LOX OO
45 0 0
25 0 0
55 0 0
3070' 0
35° 0 0

bYt0'"-0

BO! 0
15 On <0
16 14 1

bo
S
(=)
oo oo ooo o So °o

ee
on

—
(on)

i
S
o

o l=) ooo o (=) oo

£757 12 10

o ao (—j—) = =) fm] i=) i)

So o ooo So [) oo

XXXV1

GS santls
Exploration in Spitsbergen... 30 0 0
Gold Coinage in Circulation

in the United Kingdom...... Bee ((as]
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 O
Glastonbury Lake Village ... 30 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

MH WGAIM Yoieeny eeeeveetes tes cs 15 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

QUGHICS MES Ast scscescesasssuere 40 0 O
Metabolism of Individual

MASSUES Ve arcnncewi cose sc ancseee on 40 0
The Ductless Glands............ 13 14
Effect of Climate upon Health

and DiSasery. «sce cveoasccossus 35 0 OU
Body Metabolism in Cancer... 30 0 0

_Electrical Phenomena and

Metabolism of Arum Spa-

CRORE scene cse fomaadsctue ose 10 0 O
Marsh Vegetation ............... 1 0 0
Succession of Plant Remains 18 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MULE ER ss voacchen Pett anaetgo a 25 0 0

£1,157 1 8
1909.
Seismological Observations .. 60 0
Investigation of the Upper At-

mosphere bymeansof Kites 10 0
Magnetic Observations at

Halmouthy \ciscscscsssstvercae 50 O
Establishing a Solar Ob-

servatory in Australia..... . 50 0
Wave-length Tablesof Spectra 9 16
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SUANCESM ins cd «de sos oausae'eetoee 15 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 35 (0
Transformation of Aromatic

NitroaMInes’ <2 .c.ccccs+..ceces 10 0
Electroanalysis ...........0.0000+ 30 0
Fauna and Flora of British

IETIAB rvs aeskendecdvessbaaeeane 8 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the

Britishvlsles ey csseescecscee sci 8 0
Paleozoic Rocks of Wales and

the West of England ...... 50
Igneous and Associated Sedi-

mentary Rocks of Glensaul 11 13
Investigations at Biskra ...... 50 0
Table at the Zoological Station

at Naples: 0. ..5:cc-ssessueetes 100 0
Heredity Experiments......... 10 0
Feeding Habits of British

Binds! yos-.cc-cisesusessneemeneene 5 0
Index Animalium............... 75 (0
Investigations in the Indian

OCCA ie eaccscacsineaesscaaneenree 35 (OO
Gaseous Explosions ............ 75 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

ANGE MEAINY oes. scceyvecace settee 5 0

{=I =} oo oo i=) (=) o

i) oo oo oo ow o So

GENERAL STATEMENT.

mes db
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Researches in Crete............ 70 0 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 30 9 0
Electrical Phenomenaand Me-

tabolism of Avwm Syadices 10 0 O

Reflex Muscular Rhythm...... 10.6 0
| Amsesthetics ....ccsscscescccecsee Zo ea0' -'O
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 27 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5 0 0
Botanical Photographs......... 10°410..0
Experimental Study of

Heredity:..2ss.-- stsssensceseee 30 0 0
Symbiosis between Tur-

bellarian Worms and Alge 10 0 O
Survey of Clare Island......... 65 0 0
CurriculaofSecondary Schools 5 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MULHEC!.<sa3.c.ceuscorsacheeeeae AL20-.0

£1,014 9 9
1910.
Measurement of Geodetic Arc

If) SOMbM ALTICA, tes sae eye as 100 0 0
Republication of Electrical

Standards Reports ......... 100 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

Halmonth\ccccseespe=ss arses 25 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

AGMOSPhELe) cass eve nee eeee 25 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

RUAN CES iercnccuccvse conc ne ones 25 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 35 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic

Nitroamines ...........-.0.+0. 15 0 0
Electroanalysis .........sse.cs0es 10,720-- 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the

British Isles /..0.<,csicsvesete 10 30, 0
South African Strata ......... a0). .0
Fossils of Midland Coalfields 25 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............... 100 0 0
Index Animalium............... Tor0? 0
Heredity Experiments ......... LBeA0) <0
Feeding Habits of British

BItOSy wea pge eos oucemanenseenseas« 5 0 0
Amount and Distribution of

TNCOME sjevwcencescateonzeny sons baa 0: 0
Gaseous Explosions ............ 7% 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

AD BILAN, os sascsses- dees Breen eae ag)
Neolithic Sites in Northern

GRECCE Pere reaneedieceee essen ee d..0 0
The Ductless Glands ... 40 0 0
Body Metabolismin Cancer... 20 0 0
Angesthetics ..........cccscesees 25 0 0
Tissue Metabolism ............ 25 0 0
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 18 17 0
Electromotive Phenomena in

IRIAN oiccesat sects oe dar sanscaes 10 0 0

GRANIS OF MONEY.

£ s. ad.
Structure of Fossil Plants 10 0 0
Experimental Study of

HEredity. 0.22. .cscceteseedeceee 30.020
Survey of Clare Island......... 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

HEMLUCR oc ocddccsretessesses tees 20 0 0

£963 17 O
Le putl-
Seismological Investigations 60 9 0
Magnetic Observations at

VATIMOUGD (cn sicsneswesieaanaced an 25, 110) 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere ...........sseeeee 25 0 0
Grant to International Com-

mission on [Physical and

Chemical Constants ......... 30 0. 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SiTPMOTSE AcaBee poses cer coseac can 20 0 9
Dynamic Isomerism............ 25 (0, 0
Transformation of Aromatic

INJETOAMINES <2. ...060 bene aee 15 0 0
Electroanalysis .................. 15 0 0
Influence of Carbon, &c., on

Corrosion of Steel............ 15: 10» 0
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 2 0 O
Mammalian Fauna in Miocene

Deposits, Bugti Hills, Balu-

ERIS GA DIG Paemn cee nacs ac seecloaseas 12), 0an0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............0. 100 0 O
Index Animalium ............... ones 10
Feeding Habits of British

[TINGS ” Saaeepesecc Seer pee rEeReCS BewiOe 0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 30 0 0
Map of Prince Charles Fore-

| FUG Ser aasgerbeg saan adeacdcrengd 30 0 0
Gaseous Explosions .......... 90 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 O O
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Artificial Islands in Highland

HOO CUS: csevtacddachesssncessonses 10 0 0
The Ductless Glands............ 40 0 0
Anesthetics ........ Ween ehats PAVE NO} 0;
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 25 0 0
Electromotive Phenomena in

ANUS) oc-5cdvh seenasceeccscses 10 0 O
Dissociation of Oxy-Hzmo-

PRO OIMN yee vies recs sacinwchabaca veces 25 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0 0
Experimental Study of

PRET EOE peewee ctoscacocavesces 45 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... ZO) 50°10
Registration of Botanical

PHOLOBTADUS wr. csescecetcoeses 10 0 0
Mental and Physical Factors

involved in Education ...... 10 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

PENCCE sna deere Saltoses hia ceweasaces 20 0 0

oy-0

£922

XXXVll

1912.
Lin Sa. Cs
Seismological Investigations 60 0 0
| Magnetic Observations at
eee OLMOUL NE crecccate msn sen nas 25 0 O
Investigation ‘of the Upper
Atmosphere roeniseoa. woeebur 30 0 0
_ Grant to International Com-
mission on Physical and
Chemical Constants......... 30 0 ,0
Further Tabulation of Bessel
OTIC MON Sirecmse snore eesnee To. 0.40
Study of Hydro-aromatic
SUbstanceS.......s2.0.cs000 von 20) 0) 20
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 30 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic
NiltrOamiNeS teers. cece itoctilen 100720
Hlectroanalysis ..........2.se+008 10° 0" 0
Study of Plant Enzymes...... 30 0 0
Erratic Blocks .........000ss+00e 5 0 0
Igneous and Associated Rocks
Of Glensaul, &C...ccccs.0.nerle Tals0% 0
List of Characteristic Fossils 5 01, 0
| Sutton Bone Bed ..............- Tay O50
Bembridge Limestone at
Creechbarrow Hill ......... 20 0 O
Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples ............ 50 0 O
Index Animalium............... 75 0 20
| Belmullet Whaling Station... 20 0 0
| Secondary Sexual Characters
iy ITS \eriswjeedeselesnccote sess 10 0 O
Gaseous Explosions ............ 60 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glaston-
OLIN conbe sbeSccuHasegr i Soee nae a0) 10
Artificial Islands in High-
Tang WOCHSHe..cnsse=ssenercenes 10 0 O
Physical Character of Ancient
Moy PUAN es sect ssesccee cscs 40 0 0
Excavation in Easter Island 15 0 0
_ The Ductless Glands ......... Doe Ons
Jalorimetric Observations on
WICK Cage ne cnerice aang. SaaaaaceboaS 40 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0 0
Experimental Study of
LCREOLGVacseeseccoresnegsied ss sc 35 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 20 0 O
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 15wsORLO
Overlapping between Second-
ary and ery Educa-
HOM sawaisv see acesinase tine sen cee 1UEL Se 1G
Curricula, Key of Industrial
and Poor Law Schools...... 10 0 0
Influence of School Books
upon Eyesight ...........+6++ 3)
Corresponding Societies Com-
NTC HES Ceaecenee etlecenis sisnice snes 250) 0
Collections illustrating
Natural History of Isle of
Wil Gbitiveecn swan cdteccenslonsidesies 40 0 0
£845 7 6

XXXV1l1

1913.

Seismological Investigations 130

Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere ....... sansecuar re
International Committee on
Physical and Chemical
Constants
Calculation of Mathematical

Disposal of Copies of the
‘Binary Canon ’

Study of Hydro-aromatic
SUpDStances "sl...c.0scenecees :
Dynamic Isomerism......... eee

Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ............... eee
Study of Plant Enzymes......
Correlation of Crystalline
Form with Molecular Struc-
TPENS) | Sacincasascseaasaosabaeegn5
Study of Solubility Pheno-
mena
List of Characteristic Fossils
Geology of Ramsey Island ...
Fauna and Flora of Trias of
Western Midlands
Critical Sections in Lower
Paleozoic Rocks :
Belmullet Whaling Station...
Nomenclature Animalium
Genera et Sub-genera
Antarctic Whaling Industry
Maps for School and Univer-
BIbY USC spccncrsStteetsescasrest
Gaseous Explosions............
Stress Distributions in Engi-
neering Materials............

eee newer e meer e en eee ene eee

wee eewene

s. d.
0 0
0 0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

oo oo o o (=)

So oo oo oo [o) ooo (=)

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£1,086 16

LP ss
Lake Villages in the Neigh-
bourhood of Glaston-
DUR aes ertveaas dsnamtersaress ene 20 0
| Age of Stone Circles ........ 20 0
Artificial Islands in the High-
lands of Scotland ............ 5 0
| Excavations on Roman Sites
INUATHANI seas cectateccseeceeee 20 O
Anthropometric _Investiga-
tions in Cyprus ............ 50 0
Palzolithic Site in Jersey... 50 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 35 0
Calorimetric Observations on
Man sc ssacctacetosccuterccsctie: 40 0
Structure and Function of the
Mammalian Heart ......... 30 0
Binocular Combination of
| Kinematograph Pictures... 0 17
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 5 0
Flora of the Peat of the
Kennet Valley -vca.sasccsesr 15 0
Vegetation of Ditcham Park 14 4
Physiology of Heredity ...... 30 0
Breeding Experiments with
(notheras ..... Sia Ce etowtte LOL
Mental and Physical Fac-
tors involved in Educa-
GION Hasse eos oe eee eee 20 0
Influence of School Books on
Hyesight...... Snonseepreoodcso: 2 8
Character, Work, and Main-
tenance of Museums......... 10 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MNILHCE. . costes ccveteeccomtereee 25 0

N
:

uc See ss eoowee om oc

He 1 O o eo

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXX1X

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1913-14.

I. The Council have to record their profound sorrow at the death of
Sir David Gill, F.R.S., ex-President, The following resolution was
conveyed to Lady Gill by the President :—

‘The Council deeply regret the death of their late distinguished
President, Sir David Gill, whose personality was so widely
appreciated, and whose work for Astronomy at the Cape
Observatory elevated it to the first rank; and they empower
the Officers to convey to Lady Gill and his family their
profound sympathy. ©

Il. Prorzessor A. Scuuster, F.R.S., has been unanimously nomi-
nated by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association
for 1915-16 (Manchester Meeting),

III. Carrp Funp.—(a) Resolutions referred by the General
Committee to the Council for consideration and, if desirable, for action,
were dealt with as follows :—

(1) ‘ That the Council be asked to appoint a Committee to carry
out the request of Sir J. K. Caird in his letter of
September 10 (viz., that his further gift of £1,000 be ear-
marked for the study of Radio-Activity as a branch of Geo-
Physics).’

It was resolved to appoint the following Committee to carry out the
above request: The President and General Officers, Sir E. Rutherford,
Mr. F. Soddy, and Sir J. J, Thomson. The Committee was empowered
to add to its number and to modify the condition attaching to the above
gift, subject to the approval of Sir J. K. Caird.

(2) ‘ That the request of Section A (Mathematics and Physics)
for a grant from the Caird Fund of £500 for Radio-telegraphic
investigations be sent to the Council for consideration and
action.’

It was resolved that the above request be granted, and that the
General Treasurer be empowered to pay the sum named to the Chairman
of the Committee appointed to conduct the said investigations.

(3) ‘ That a grant of £100 for the coming year be made to the
Committee on the Naples Table from the Caird Fund, and
that the Council! be requested to consider the advisability of
endowing the Committee by a capital sum yielding an annual
income of £100.’

It was resolved that a grant of £100 for the coming year be made
to the Committee on the Naples Table from the Caird Fund, and that
a grant of £100 be made annually in future to the Committee, subject
to the adoption of its annual report.

xl REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

(4) ‘ That a grant of £100 for the coming year be made to the
Committee on Seismological Investigations from the Caird
Fund, and that the Council be asked to consider the
advisability of endowing the Committee by a capital sum
yielding an annual income of £100.’

It was resolved that a grant of £100 for the coming year be made
to the Committee on Seismological Investigations, and that a grant of
£100 be made annually in future to the Committee, subject to the
adoption of its annual report.

(b) An application to the Council from the ‘ Scotia’ Publication
Committee (Scottish Antarctic Expedition) for a grant of £400 from the
Caird Fund towards the expenses of the publication of the ‘ Scientific
Results of the Voyage of the ‘‘ Scotia’’’ was considered, and it was
resolved that the application could not be entertained.

IV. Resouvutions referred to the Council by the General Committee
at Birmingham for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, were
dealt with as follows :—

From Sections A and EL.

“That the terms First Order, Second Order, Third Order, and
Fourth Order of triangulation, as connoting definite degrees
of precision, be used to describe triangulation even though
the terms now in use (e.g., Major, Minor, &c.), which have
only a local significance, are also employed.’

‘That this resolution be communicated through the proper
channels to (a) the Geodetic Association, and (b) the Institute
of Surveyors.’

The Council approved the principle of the above resolution, and
resolved that Professor H. H. Turner and Captain H. G. Lyons be
appointed a Committee to communicate, in the name of the Council,
with the Geodetic Association and the Institute of Surveyors. The
Committee duly carried out this instruction.

From Section I.

‘The Committee of Section I requests the Council of the
Association to forward to the Board of Trade the following
resolution :-——

(i) That Colour Vision Tests are most efficiently conducted
by means of what is known as the “‘ Lantern Test.”’

(ii) That the best form of such lantern has not yet been
finally decided upon, and can be arrived at only after
further expert report.

(iii) That the actual application of sight tests requires the
co-operation of an ophthalmic surgeon with a practical
navigator.’

The Council, after careful consideration and consultation among
members specially interested in this question, resolved to take no action.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xi

From Section I.

‘That in view of the fact that numerous deaths continue to take
place from anesthetics administered by unregistered persons,
the Committee of the Section of Physiology of the British
Association appeals to the Council of the Association to repre-
sent to the Home Office and to the Privy Council the urgent
need of legislation to protect the public against such
unnecessary risks.’

The Council appointed a Committee to consider and report upon
the above resolution, and subsequently adopted the following resolution,
which was transmitted to the Home Office :—

“The Council of the British Association desire to urge upon
His Majesty’s Government the necessity of introducing legis-
lation on the subject of the administration of anesthetics, as
recommended by the Departmental Committee of the Home
Office, dated March 18, 1910, but with the addition to Recom-
mendation (3) of a clause permitting administration by un-
registered persons under the immediate supervision of a person
duly qualified. The Council would point out that the recom-
mendations of the General Medical Council are practically
identical with those of the Departmental Committee, and that
these recommendations have been approved by various
academic and professional bodies, and also by the Council
of this Association in 1910.’

VY. In connection with the Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles,
referred to in the Report of the Council for 1912-13, the Council
agreed to the proposal of the Royal Society that a joint supervising
committee of the Society and the Association be appointed, and the
following members were appointed to represent the Association: Sir
Oliver Lodge, Prof. J. Perry, Prof. H. H. Turner, Dr. ©. Chree,
Dr. S. Chapman, Dr. F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

The Council empowered the General Treasurer to pay from the
Caird Fund a sum not exceeding £250 towards the cost of the Survey.

VI. Ausrrauian Mrrtina.—(i) At their meeting in December 1913
the Council were informed as to the limit of the total number of the
oversea party which the Australian authorities had found it necessary
to propose, having regard to the provision of suitable travelling
facilities, &c., in Australia. The Council were also informed that by
counting all doubtful or qualified intimations from members, and all
applications for new membership, the limit above mentioned was
already substantially exceeded. It was resolved (a) that there should
be no more admissions to the oversea party, excepting any member
whose attendance the Australian Committee or the General Officers (in
consultation, if necessary, with representatives of any particular
Section) might decide to be of special importance to the scientific
work of the meeting; (b) that the General Secretaries should be
empowered to desire members whose intimations were qualified by

xlii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

doubt to express their definite intentions by a certain date; (c) that
the General Officers should be empowered to take, in the name of the
Council, any other measures which might appear necessary to effect
a reduction in the total number of the oversea party.

(ii) Previously to the departure of Dr. A. C. D. Rivett, General
Organising Secretary in Australia, from London in December 1913, it
was resolved that the thanks of the Council be expressed to Dr. Rivett
for the assistance he had rendered in connection with the arrangements
for the meeting during his visit to England; and to the authorities in
Australia under whose direction he had paid this visit.

VII. The Council resolved that the meetings of the Conference of
Delegates of Corresponding Societies be held in Havre in August 1914
on the occasion of the meeting there of L’Association Francaise pour
l’Avancement des Sciences.

In these circumstances the Council made the following appoint-
ments on behalf of the General Committee (in place of nominations,
as usual) :—

Conference of Delegates —Sir H. G. Fordham (Chairman), Sir
EK. Brabrook (Vice-Chairman), Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary).

The following nominations are made by the Council :—

Corresponding Societies Committee—Mr. W. Whitaker (Chair-
man), Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr, A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and the President and
General Officers of the Association.

VIII. The Council have received an intimation from the Town
Clerk of Cardiff that the Council and other authorities in that city
intend to present an invitation to the Association to hold there its
Meeting in 1918.

IX. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. In consequence of the early removal of the books,
&c., from London to Australia, it has not been possible to prepare the
usual annual accounts. These will be audited and presented to the
General Committee at the Manchester Meeting (1915).

X. The retiring members of the Council are:—

Sir D. Prain, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, Prof. F. T. Trouton,
Dr. J. E. Marr, Prof. J. B. Farmer.

The Council nominated the following new members :—

Dr. F. W. Dyson,
Miss E. R. Saunders,
Prof. E. H. Starling,

leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
nomination by the Council.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlii

The full list of nominations of ordinary members is as follows: —

Prof. H. E, Armstrong. ae Ds all:

Sir E. Brabrook, Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
Prof. W. H. Bragg. Sir Everard im Thurn,
Dr. Dugald Clerk. | Alfred Lodge.

Major P. G. Craigie. Capt. H, G. Lyons,
W. Crooke. Prof, R. Meldola.
Prof. A. Dendy. Prof. J. L. Myres.
Dr. F. A. Dixey. Miss E. R. Saunders.
Prof. H. B. Dixon. Prof. E. H. Starling
Dr. F. W. Dyson. J. J. H. Teall.
Principal E. H. Griffiths. Prof. §. P. Thompson.

Dr. A. C. Haddon.

XI. Tue Generau OFricers have been nominated by the Council
as follows :—

General Treasurer: Prof. J. Perry.
. General Secretaries: Prof. W. A. Herdman.
Prom Ee He Liumner:

XII. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee :—

Prof. H. S. Carslaw. Prof. T. Lyle.

Prof. W. J. Dakin. Dr. H. McCombie.

Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David. Mr. J. H. Maiden.

Prof. W. G. Duffield. Dr. R. R. Marett.

Mr. A. du Toit. Prof. Orme Masson.

Prof. A. J. Ewart. Dr. N. V. Sidgwick.

Mr. J. T. Ewen. Prof. C. Michie Smith.
Prof. H. J. Fleure. Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer.
Mr. Willoughby Gardner. Prof. B. D. Steele.

Prof. Kerr Grant. Prof. E. C. Stirling.

Mr. C. Hedley. Dr. W. E. Sumpner.

Prof. W. A. Jolly. Major A. J. N. Tremearne,
Dr. C. F. Juritz.

xliv GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Dr. ' THE GENERAL TREASURER IN ACCOUNT

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
1913-1914. RECEIPTS. s
ways .
Balance brought fonwards-c.scctesna+cseccceewessscscesoupsrennsngtttes 1,875 13 3
Life Compositions (including Transfers) ...........ceseeeeeeeens 549 0 0
Annual SObSeCriptions te. nace cnc sciceaseesncunsaceencan-scceeeatethestrees 782 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ..........2..csseeseeeee seen 356 0 0
Sale of Associates’ Tickets ............cscscscseeees Snaptioon trtipsenccne 1,266 0 0
Sale of Ladies (Ptekets tein cscavss tects savldtewcaine ranen te neeeneeee ae 290 0 0
Sale/of Publications. ti viscsnss-deccees aan neseentarcdcaeaneneetcctens 248 2 0
Sir James Caird’s Gift (Radio-activity Investigation) ......... 1,000 0 0
Interest on Deposits :
Lloyds Bank; Birmingham) “25. socncssn0ceseec-nsesee-s ee demcen 52 010
Bank of Gotland unders.ascv.sccersscceacesaeerestrescerter 2 16 11
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned : NST Bewet iF
Mossi) Plants ie eens taedemuetetecs awe neeceh ess aes 010 3
Corresponding Societies Committee ......... 114 8
Jurassic onan. saaceaseresemtereutsods nec usess ul he wll
Dividends on Investments: —- 519 0
Console! cccrsacoat sacteatscerectascreee jagsoebosnonodnes 134 4 8
India’ 3iper Cent) Stock: sis..¢nessssesemasece- tee 101 14 0
Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity 29 1 6
Dividends on ‘ Caird Fund’ Investments : - 265.0 2
London and North-Western Railway Consoli-
dated 4 per Cent. Preference Stock ...... 94 3 4
London and South-Western Railway do. do. 94 3 4
Tndial32 per Centr Stock t....sss+.sssesess tenes Soni s
Canada 33 per Cent. Registered Stock......... 82-7, 10
- a aby 0 2
Australian Government Subsidy: 1914 Meeting ...... sSrandon 15,000 0 0

Mem.: Receipts on account of the Australian Meeting
(1914), amounting to £243, are not included in this account,
but are paid to a separate (No. 2) account at the Bank,

Investments.

Nominal Amount. Value 30th J ney 1914,

£ Gs CF & 5.
5,701 10 5 23 per Cent. Consolidated Stock ..... 4,276 2 10
3,600 O O India 3 per Cent. Stock ..............000+ 2,700 0 0

879 14 9 £43 Great Indian Peninsula Railway

“B Annuity (Cost) ss... -cercisssseser es 849 5 0

2,427 010 India 33 per Cent. Stock,‘ Caird Fund’ 2,338 1 4

2,500 0 0 London and North- Western Railway

Consolidated 4 per Cent. Preference

Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ...........0-s000 2,500 0 O
2,500 0 O London and South-Western Railway

Consolidated 4 per Cent. Preference

Stock,“ CamrdyMund aco ercaeseseneree 2ZATS 0 0
2,500 0 0 Canada3+ per Cent. 1930-1950 Regis-
tered Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ......... 9°295 0 0

Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift :—
OSA %e Self-cumulating Consolidated Stock. ee

[To be awarded in 1931 for a paper £21,549 18 4
dealing with the whole question a
of the Prime Moyers of 1931, and
especially with the then relation
between steam engines and internal
combustion engines. |

JOHN PERRY, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. xlv

WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE Cr.
July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1914.
1913-1914. PAYMENTS.
Sirhan ear
Rent and Office Expenses ........ Mee aeneemee Stee Sibodusanaentertsceeass 167 OM
RIAIRINIOS AUC Giecceitor ree ccna tae toe se cvaeace reek cunetes Teme aaleetne se sinensis vice 758 11 9
RUMEN HIN GIN Ci Cedeascsetcresl | Secenfedsrcean veces ele. seaseerretens 1,216 8 10
Expenses of Birmingham Meeting ..... RRC He AANOOnaanaonsncea) Oran 165 11 2
Payments on account of Australian Meeting...........00...c0seeee 44 4 9
Grants to Research Committees :— Fe Gi wSsr ids
Seismological Investigations .............. iatalel ete letet aictutata sists yele 130 0 0
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere ......-...--+..0005 25 0 0
International Committee on Physical and Chemical Constants 40 0 0
Calculation of Mathematical Tables............c00eceee cece 20, 0. 0
Disposal of Copies of the ‘ Binary Canon’........scseeerecses 4, 9-0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances ..........cececceeeeeree 15 0 0
AVA TSOMMETISION gta. ale) sips vine Sigs « coes'= s'a%e ie ain elevig.vlols we ae howe 2 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines ............0- 2+ eee Wb 0 0
Study of Plant Bn7y Mes ire as lic saiceissiesinsie vice secre see aed, Atha)
Oorrelation of Orystalline Form with Molecular Str ueture eee Ary pC S)
Study of Solubility PHenOMenanciecieie ce econ ccc se ewss ce ceria ce 10 0 0
List of Characteristic Fossils...... Sabsiden siete sijeteic’ alsin berOr 0
Geolory of Ramsey Island) sc etic sckden neve cin tlecs ce we LO Oe O
Fauna and Flora of Trias of Western Midlands .......... Bete len ea
Critical Sections iu Lower Paleozoic Rocks ..............+00. 15 0 0
Belmallet Whaling Station ......ccsccccsecccas sccsnecetas 20 0 0
Nomenclature Animalium Genera et Sub-genera .............. 50 0 0
Antarctic Whaling Industry ..... aero aie ain) viata! fulstcist aie ai Waerel chars 75 0 0
Maps for School and University Use .. e cap Deere 40/10 40
Gaseous MX DIOSLONE cx.cnn sis.e sien se enieincieleisiay aaiee.e aoe aathae De. 0.5.0
Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials 50 0 0
Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury .......... 20 0 0
PROGL EHORE ORECLES % pela vis’. as) vines is aieieim-winiciegl ee sinis)a0/e-aie(etan 20 0 0
Artificial Is!ands in the Highlands GrScotlavd, oscs dsc tos ye oegy
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain ........-. ee. cece eee 20 0 0
Anthropometric Investigatiors in i ee Sfataistietcucslalaieiee Oe) + p OU0uen Ol O
Paleolithic Site in Jersey .....ccsccrcsscccvee res 50 0 0
‘lhe Ductless Glands .........- Aa ae doe acn 35 0 0
Calorimetric Observations on Man miiofalaieta eiecatalel vies Me ekae ee
Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart 30 0 0
Binocular Combination of Kinematograph Pictures ......-... 017 0
MBELMCtuTe|OL MOSS PIANES! (jocgsncwcscelcucl- + acisslieivcire cs acne 15 0 0
IUTASALC HL OTAV OEY OYRSLITE "cin stelevarelala'aiss -\e/alelelele cl elsleialateys/aleleleie 5 0 0
Flora of the Peat uf the Kennet Valley ......... weseeseceeee 15 0 0
Vegeta'ion of Ditcham Park .............. “ap ano 0g ge apron 14 4 3
Ph yeiolopy OL Hered it yi yalee,ctacane syaieic e118) ol<inivld as 1a g eieisiclsisin's. cise 30 0 0
Breeding Experiments with Ginotheras ........-.-+..eeeeeeee 1917 4
Mental and Physical Factois involved in Education.......... 20 0 0
Influence of School Books on Eyesight ........... Saintes csialaieic'e 28 9
Oharacter, Work, and Maintenance of Museums ......... needa Lomo 0
Corresponding Societies Committee ..... ereeaisiale svayeetctatate=tale opats 25 0 0
ee OS) 1b) a
Grants made from ‘Caird Fund ’........... .eeccecceeeee stemiesa tao O SO
Amounts paid to Grantees from A ustralian Government
Subsidy: UO Meetin pyr. cccciscscenteccsescsccese Catania: La. 900: 0-0
Balance at Lloyds Bank, Birmingham (including £ i, a:
accrued Interest) .. .....06. sseeeeseees Mirteines C6762 Ss
Balance at Bank of England,
Western Branch: On General
AMO Hage Gacancanoncede An Pee care £933 1 10
Less Overspent on ‘Caird Fund’... 226 6 6
Sciceeieiaieanieeniael 70615 4
Petty Cash in hand .......... nuenennodsscri baadace: Gov 317 4
———— 2,387 411

£21,549 18_4

An Account of £864 6s. 6d. is outstanding due to Messrs. Spottiswoode 5 Co,

I have examined the above Account with the Rooks and Vouchers of the Association, and certify the
same to be correct. I have also verified the Balance at the Bankers, and have aseertained that the Invest-
ments are registered in the names cf the Trustees, W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant.

Approved— December 2, 1914.
EDWARD BRABROOK. on
HERBERT McLEOD, I Auditors.

xlvi GENERAL MEETINGS.

GENERAL MEETINGS, 1914.

The General Meetings held in Australia will be found mentioned in
the course of the Narrative on pp. 679, segg. A Narrative of the Visit of
Members to the Meeting of L’ Association Francaise at Le Havre, with an
account of the meetings held there, is given on p. 720.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS AT THE AUSTRALIAN
MEETING, 1914.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. F. T. Trouton, F.R.S. (in absentid). Vice-Presidents.—
Prof. E. W. Brown, F.R.S.; Prof. H. 8. Carslaw, F.R.S.; Sir Oliver J. Lodge,
F.R.S.; Prof. A. W. Porter, F.RS.; Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S. Secretaries.—
Prof, A, 8, Eddington, F.R.S. (Recorder); E. Gold, M.A.; Prof. 8S. B, McLaren,
M.A.; A. O. Rankine D.Sc.; Prof. T. R. Lyle, F.R.S. (Local Sec., Melbourne) ;
Prof. J. A. Pollock, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

President.—Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. Clowes,
D.Se.; Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.; Prof. Orme Masson, F.R.S.; Prof. E. H.
Rennie, D.Sc.; Prof. B. D. Steele, D.Sc. Secretaries —A. Holt, D.Sc. (Recorder) ;
N. V. Sidgwick, D.Sc.; D. Avery, M.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. C.
Fawsitt, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Prof. Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.LE., F.R.S. Vice-Prestdents—
Prof. W. S. Boulton, D.Sc.; Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G.; H.
Herman ; Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.; Prof. Woolnough, D.Sc. Secretaries.—
A. R. Dwerryhouse, D.Sc. (Recorder); Prof. S. H. Reynolds, M.A.; Prof. E. W.
Skeats, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M. (Local Sec.,
Sydney).

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—Prof. A. Dendy, D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. C. B.
Davenport; Prof. W. A. Haswell, F.R.S.; Prof. H. Jungersen; Dr. O, Maas;
Prof. E. A. Minchin, F.R.8.; Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S. Seere-
tartes—Prof. H. W. Marett Tims, M.A., M.D. (Recorder); J. H. Ashworth,
D.Sce.; R. Douglas Laurie, M.A.; T. 8. Hall, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne) ;
Prof. W. A. Haswell, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec., Sydney).

la = SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Sir Charles P. Lucas, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. Vice-Presidents.—Prof.
Guido Cora; Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, C.M.G.; Capt. J. K. Davis; Prof.
- W.M. Davis; Sir John Forrest; Prof.A.Penck. Seeretaries—H. Yule Oldham,
M.A. (Recorder); J. McFarlane, M.A.; J. A. Leach, M.Sc. (Local Sec., Mel-
bourne); F. Poate (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Prof. E.C. K. Gonner, M.A. Vice-Prestdents.—S, Ball; T. R.
Bavin; Denison Miller; H. Y. Braddon; Harrison Moore. WSecretaries.—Prof.
A. W. Kirkaldy, M.A., M.Com., (Recorder) ; Prof. H. O. Meredith, M.A., M.Com.;
G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof, R. F. Irvine, M.A, (Local
Sec., Sydney).

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1914. xlvii

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—Prof. E, G. Coker, D.Se. Viee-Presidents—W. Davidson; H.
Deane, M.A.; Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S.; Col. J. Monash; Prof. J. E. Petavel,
F.R.S. Secretaries.—Prof. G. W. O. Howe, M.Se. (Recorder); Prof. W. M.
Thornton, D.Se.; Prof. H. Payne (Local Sec., Melbourne) ; Prof. W. H. Warren
(Locai Sec., Sydney).

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY,

President.—Sir Everard im Thurn, C.B., K.C.M.G. Vice-Presidents,—
H. Balfour, M.A.; Dr. Etheridge; Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.; Prof. F. von
Luschan ; Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S.; Prof. E. C. Stirling, F.R.S.
Secretaries—R. R. Marett, M.A., D.Sc. (Recorder); B. Malinowski, Ph.D.;
Prof. R. J. A. Berry, M.D. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. J. T. Wilson, M.B.,

‘F.R.S. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Prof. Benjamin Moore, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prot. W. D-
Halliburton, F.R.S.; Prof. Sir E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.; Prof. E. C. Stirling,
F.R.S. Seeretaries.—Prot. P. T. Herring, M.D. (Recorder) ; Prof. T. H. Milroy,
M.D.; Prof. W. A. Osborne, D.Se. (Local fec., Melbourne); Prof. Sir T, P.
Anderson Stuart, M.D., LL.D. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

President.—Prof. F. ©. Bower, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—J. H. Maiden,
F.L.S. ; Miss E. R. Saunders, F.L.S.; Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. Seeretaries.—
Prof. T. Johnson, 1).Se. (Recorder) ; Miss E. N. Thomas, D.Se.; Prof. A. J.
Ewart, D.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. A. Anstruther Lawson, Ph.D , D.Se.
(Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof. H. KE, Armstrong,
F.R.S.; C. A. Buckmaster, M.A.; G.T. Moody, D.Sc. Secretarves.—Prof. J. A.
Green, M.A. (Recorder); OC. A. Buckmaster, M.A.; J. Smyth, M.A. (Local
Sec., Melbourne); P. Board, M.A. (Local Sec., Sydney).

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

President.—A. D. Hall, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—H. 8. Beaven, F.C.S.;
Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A. Seeretaries.—J. Golding, F.I.C. (Recorder) ; A. Lauder,
D.Se.; Prof. T. Cherry, M.Sc. (Local Sec., Melbourne); Prof. R. D. Watt, M.A.
(Loeal Sec., Sydney). )

CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES (HAVRE, 1914).
Chatyman._Sir H. G. Fordham. Vice-Chaityman.—Sir E. Brabrook.
Secretary. W. Mark Webb.

xlvui

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

1831, Paap:

1841, July

1862, Oct.
1863, Aug.

1864, Sept.
1865, Sept.
1866, Aug.
1867, Sept.
1868, Aug.
1869, Aug.
1870, Sept.
1871, Aug.
1872, Aug.
1873, Sept.
1874, Aug.
1875, Aug.
1876, Seps.
1877, Aug.
1878, Aug.
1879, Aug.
1880, Aug.
1881, Aug.
1882, Aug.
1883, Sept.
1884, Aug.
1885, Sept.
1886, Sept.
1887, Aug.
1888, Sept. 5
1889, Sept.
1890, Sept.
1891, Aug.
1892, Aug.
1893, Sept.
1894, Aug.
1895, Sept.
1896, Sept.
1897, Aug.
1898, Sept.
1899, Sept.
1900, Sept.

1832, June 19
1833, June 25......
1834, Sept. 8 ...
1835, Aug.
1836, Aug.
1837, Sept.
1838, Aug.
1839, Aug.
1840, Sept.

1842, June 23
1843, Aug.
1844, Sept.
1845, Junel9...
1846, Sept. =
1847, June 23......
1848, Aug. 9
1849, Sept.
1850, July 21

1851, July 2...
1852, Sept.
1853, Sept.
1854, Sept.
1855, Sept.
1856, Aug.
1857, Aug.
1858, Sept.
1859, Sept.
1860, June 27......,
1861, Sept.

7
26

1
3
20
12
6
26
22
14

26.

13
6
22
4

19,

Date of Meeting

0B ick..

14,
BD
14,

Wh Sse

19.

25 ......)

Ds Scone
Ub are
14.
20.
25.
31.
PLR
WO esaces

19.

1305s

ll
16
18
if

13...

eek

— : Old Life | New Life

Where held | Presidents | Members | Members
| Work oe ee dered E Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...... _ —
Oxford ......| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. / _— | —
Cambridge ...| The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ite = =
| Edinburgh ...| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S. . = =
| Dublin .... .... The Rey. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R. s _ _
| Bristol .. ....| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.RS... — _—
Liverpool) é 2.2. ieee: The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... _ _
Neweastle-on-Tyne...,| The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S.) _ ~
. Birmingham ... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. — _—
Glasgow....... ..| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S — —
Plymouth .... ... The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ... 169 65
Manchester | The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G. Se 303 169
rk eee .| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .... 109 28
York . _ The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D., F. ‘RS | 226 150
Cambridge | Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. »ER.S.| 313 36
Southampton seeeeees.| Sit Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. FR. s. 241 | 10
Oxford!) te . Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., FRS. ase 314 18
| Swansea,......... .... TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.S., 149 Ry}
Birmingham | The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., E.RS,| Pee be on
.... Edinburgh | Sir David Brewster, K. H., FRS....... 235 9
.! Ipswich....... "| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. 172° 4 8
| Belfast .. .| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ... ‘ 164 | 10
eae tr h oe ee William Hopkins, F. RS.. 141 13
' Liverpool The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. . 238 23
Glasgow..... ...| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. 194 33
| Cheltenham . ...| Prof.C0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.B.S.... 182 14
Dublin ..... .| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S. 236 15
Leeds . ..| Richard Owen, M.D., D. O.L. , E.R. Si 222 42
Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ........... 184 27
Oxford ..... ..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. . 286 21
Manchester .. .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113
Cambridge .. ... The Rey. Professor Willis,M.A.,F.R.S. 239 15
Newcastle-on-Tyne...| SirWilliam G. Armstrong. C.B., F.R.S.| 203 36
[SRB mate ene, eee] Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart. MA.F.RS| 287 | 40
| Birmingham, “| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. FRS.| 292 | 44
Nottingham... ..| William R. Grove, Q. 0., F.RB.S. . Me 207 31
Dundee ........ ... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B.. a R. s. 167 25
Norwich “| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, FBS... 196 18
..| Exeter ..... ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F. Ripaee 204 21
| Liverpool .. Perot. ok. H Huxley, LL.D. hy ERS. 314 | 39
| Edinburgh | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.RS. 246 | 28
Brighton .. Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. . ay 245 36
Bradford .. ..| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.. 212 oT

"| Sir W. Crookes, FBS. . foe em pie |
Dover ...| Sir Michael Foster, K. C. B., Sec.R.S... 296 20

Bradford Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.B.S. . SRG calls eae |

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. + Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

[Continwed on p. 1.

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Old New
Annual | Annual pres) Ladies
Members | Members
_- — _— 1100*
46 317 — 60*
75 376 33F 331*
71 185 _— 160
45 190 oF 260
94 22 407 172
65 39 270 196
197 40 495 203
54 25 376 197
93 33 447 237
128 42 510 273
61 47 244 141
63 60 510 292
56 57 367 236
121 121 765 524
142 101 1094 543
104 48 412 346
156 120 900 569
111 91 710 509
125 179 1206 821
177 59 636 463
184 125 1589 791
150 57 433 242
154 209 1704 1004
182 103 1119 1058
215 149 766 508
218 105 960 771
193 118 1163 771
226 117 720 682
229 107 678 600
303 195 1103 910
311 127 976 754
280 80 937 912
237 99 796 601
232 85 817 630
307 93 884 672
331 185 1265 712
238 59 446 283
290 93 1285 674
239 74 529 349
171 41 389 147
313 176 1230 514
253 79 516 189
330 323 952 841
317 219 826 74
332 122 1053 447
428 179 1067 429
510 244 1985 493
399 100 639 509
412 113 1024 579
368 92 680 334
341 152 672 107
413 141 733 439
328 57 773 268
435 69 941 451
290 31 493 261
383 139 1384 873
286 125 682 100
327 96 1051 639
324 68 548 120
297 45 801 482

Sums paid
J oount on account
Foreigners} Total Gaon tb f of Grants Year
g for Scientific
Meeting Purposes

— 353 — — 1831
— — — — 1832
—_— 900 —_ = 1833
_ 1298 _ £20 0 0 1834
— —_— —_— 167 0 0 1835
— 1350 — 435 0 0 1836
— 1840 —_— 922 12 6 1837
— 2400 —_— 932 2 2 1838
34 1438 —_— 1595 11 0 1839
40 1353 —_ 1546 16 4 1840
_— 891 — 1235 10 11 1841
28 1315 — 1449 17 8 1842
— — — 1565 10 2 1843
_ — — 98112 8 1844
35 1079 — 831.9. 9 1845
36 857 — 685 16 0 1846
53 1320 — 208 5 4 1847
15 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8 1848
22 1071 S637 0.0 159 19 6 1843
44 1241 1685 0 0] 34518 0 1850
37 710 6205 070) 23919) 17) 1851
9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852
6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853
10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854
26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855
9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858
22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859
47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 1860
15 3138 3944 0 0} 1111 5 10 1861
25 1161 1089 0 0} 129316 6 1862
25 3335 3640 0 0} 1608 3 10 1863
13 2802 2965 0 0} 128915 8 1864
23 1997 2227 0 0O/|] 1591 7 10 186d
11 2303 «| 2469 0 0} 175013 4 1866
7 2444 | 2613 0 0/1739 4 0 1867
45f 2004 2042 0 0|] 1940 0 0 1868
17 1856 19381 0 0} 1622 0 0 1869
14 2878 3096 0 0} 1572 0 0 1870
21 2463 «=| 2575 0 0] 1472 2 6 1871
43 2533 2649 0 0/1285 0 0 1872
11 1983 2120 0 0} 1685 0 0 1873
12 1951 1979 0 0O/ 115116 0 1874
17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0 1875
25 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2 1876
11 1229 12768 0 0) 1128 9 7 L877
17 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878
13 1404 1425 0 0O,| 1080 11 11 1879
12 915 899 0 0 ely ee f 1880
24 2557 2689 0 0} 476 8 1 1881
21 1253 1286 0 0| 1126 111 1882
5 2714 3369 0 0); 1083 3 3 1883
26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0°00} 1173 4 0 1884
6 2203 2256 0 0O| 1385 0 0 1885
11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886
92 3838 4336 0 0} 118618 0 1887
12 1984 | 2107 0 0) 15ll O 5 1888
21 2437 | 2441 0 0/ 1417 O11 1889
12 1775 1776 0 0} 78916 8 1890
35 1497 | 1664 0 0); 102910 0 1891
50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892
17 1661 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893
77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894
22 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895
41 3181 | 3228 0 0) 1104 6 1 1896
41 1362 | 1398 0 0/ 105910 8 1897
33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0 1898
27 1403 1328 0 0 | 143014 2 1899
9 1915 1801 0 0/| 107210 0 1900

{Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meetin g.

1914,

[Continued on p. li.

Date of Meeting

‘ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Where held

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

1906, Aug. 1
1907, July 31 ..,
1908, Sept. 2 ...

1911, Aug. 30
1912, Sept. 4
1913, Sept. 10
1914, July-Sept....|

1909, Aug. 25...... | | Winnipeg
1910, Aug. 31 ...... | Sheffield...
ike Portsmouth.

1901, Sept. 11...... Gises Rese WE
1902, Sept. 10....., | Belfast ...

1903, Sept. 9 ...... | Southport .,

1904, Aug. 17...... | Cambridge........

1905, Aug. 15....., | South Africa .,

3 : Old Life | New Life
Presidents Members | Members
|
anal) SerOr. rs W. Riicker, D. Ses See, eRe 310 . 37
.| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......... | 243 | 21
.| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.} 250 21
.| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. 419 32
.| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 115 40
.| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.) 322 10
.| Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. ..... 276 19
. Dr. Francis Darwin, F. Tnshe enagca 294 24
.| Prof. Sir J, J. Thomson i BE eee 117 13
.| Rey. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS. ... 293 26
.| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B, F.R.S, 284 21
Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.. 288 14
.| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.. 376 40
..... Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. 172 13

G Including 848 Members of the South African Association.
tt Grants from the Caird Fund are not included in this and subsequent sums.

1833 and 1860
1841 and 1907

1836 and 1911

between 1831 and 1913

Average attendance at—

5 ”
9 ”

ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT

[The total attendances for the years 1832,

Average attendance at 79 Meetings : 1858.
Average
Attendance
Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between
. ; 1260
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during July Ys between
: 1122
Average attendance at 32 Meetings beginning during ‘Aug gust, between
° 1927
Average attendance at 37 Meetings beginning during ‘September,
. ° ° 1977
Attendance at 1 Meeting held in October, Cambridge, 1862 : 1161
SES Ste ies
Mectings beginning during August.
4 Meetings beginning during the lst week in Awgust( Ist- 7th) . 1905
” ” ” 2nd ” ” a ( 8th-14th) . 2130
“ Steen Cie Teint ANY a 3 SE) ae TT
” ” ” 4th ” ” ” (22nd-31st) ” 1935

14 ”

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS. li

at Annual Meetings of the Association—(continued).

| | | Sums paid
Old New nee saa ail on account
_ Annual | Annual iat 4 Ladies |Foreigners| Total auxinorthie of Grants Year
Members| Members °!*"€S Me ah for Scientific
| gs Purposes
_ 374 131 794 246 20 1912 £2046 0 0 £920 9 11 1901
_ 84 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0 | 947 0 0 1902
| 319 90 688 | 365 21 1754 1762 0 0| 845 13 2 1903
; 449 113.) «(1388 S| 317 121 2789 | 2650 0 0 | 887 18 11 1904
9377 411 | 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0| 928 2 2 1905
| 356 93 CO 817 352 22 1972 | 1811 0 0} 882 0 9 1906
| 339 61 | 659 251 42 1647 | 1561 0 0 | 757 12 10 1907
465 1 ct R66 222 14 2297 2317 O 0 115718 8 1908
| 290%* 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 0/1014 9 9 1909
379 57 563 123 8 1449 14389 0 0} 96317 0 1910
/ 349 61 414 81 31 1241 1176 0 0; 922 0 O 1911
; 368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 0| 845 7 6 1912
480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0 0| 97817 1ff 1913
139 4160]| 539] | — 21 5044l] | 4873 0 0/1086 16 4 1914

** Including 137 Members of the American Association.
{| Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to att2nd the Meeting of L’ Association
Francaise at Le Havre.

THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1913.
1835, 1843, and 1844 are wnknown. |

Meetings beginning during September.

Average attendance at—

Average
Attendance
13 Meetings beginning during the Ist week in September( 1st— 7th). 2131
17 i fp " TT feu Caen Pes » ( 8th-14th). 1906
i 3, is tl fe BEDS » (15th-21st). 2206
a, - Sess Ate | » (22nd-30th), 1025
Meetings beginning during June, July, and October.
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd
week in June (15th-21st) . ; 1079
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week in
June (22nd-30th) : 1306
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning. during the 1st
week in July (1Ist-7th) . 710
Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in
July (15th-21st) : 1066
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1907, July 31) beginning during the 5th
week in July (29th-31st) . 1647
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October ree beginning ‘during the Ist
week in October (1st-7th) . : - ala

1914. : c2

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

LIST OF GRANTS: Ausrrazia, 1914.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC., APPOINTED ON BEHALF OF THE GENERAL
CoMMITTEE AT THE AusTRALIAN MEETING: AvGust, 1914.

1. Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

Members of Committee

Grants

Section AA—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Seismological Observations.

Investigation of the Upper Atmo-
sphere.

Annual Tables of Constants and
Numerical Data, chemical, phy-
sical, and technological.

Calculation of Mathematical

Tables.

Secretary.—Professor J. Perry.

Chairman.—ProfessorH.H.Turneyr.

Mr. Horace Darwin, Mr. C. Davi-
son, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Mr.
M. H. Gray, Professors J. W.
Judd and C. G. Knott, Sir J.
Larmor, Professor R. Meldola,
Mr. W. E. Plummer, Dr. R. A.
Sampson, Professor A. Schuster,
Mr. J. J. Shaw, and Mr. G. W.
Walker,

Chairman.— Dr. W. N. Shaw.

Secretary.— Mr. E. Gold,

Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Mr. W. H. Dines,
Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Sir J.
Larmor, Professor J. E. Petavel,
Professor A. Schuster, and Dr.
W. Watson.

Chairman.—-Sir W. Ramsay.
Secretary.—Dr. W.C. McC. Lewis.

Chairman.—Professor M. J. M.
Hill.

Secretary.—Professor J. W. Nichol- |
son.

Mr. J. R. Airey, Mr. T. W. Chaundy,
Professor Alfred Lodge, Pro-
fessor L. N. G. Filon, Sir G.

Greenhill, and Professors E. W. |
| Hobson, A. E. H. Love, H. M.
' Macdonald, and A. G. Webster.

25 00

40 00

% In addition, the Council was authorised to expend a sum not exceeding £70 for the printing of
circulars, &c., in connection with the Committee on Seismological Observations,

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

liii

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Grants

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

The Study of Hydro-Aromatic Sub-
stances.

Dynamic Isomerism.

The Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to
Substitution in Benzene De-
rivatives.

The Study of Plant Enzymes,
particularly with relation to
Oxidation.

Correlation of Crystalline Form
with Molecular Structure.

Study of Solubility Phenomena.

Chemical Investigation of Natural
Plant Products of Victoria.

The Influence of Weather Con-
ditions upon the Amounts of
Nitrogen Acids in the Rainfall
and the Atmosphere.

Research on Non-Aromatic Diazo-
nium Salts

Chairman.—ProfessorW.H.Perkin.

Secretary.—Professor A. W.Cross-
ley.

Dr. M. O. Forster, Dr. Le Sueur,
and Dr. A. McKenzie.

Chairman.—Professor H, E. Arm-
strong,

Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry.

Professor Sydney Young, Dr. Desch,
Dr. J. J. Dobbie, and Dr. M. O.
Forster.

Chairman.—Professor F, 8. Kip-
ping.

Secretary.—ProfessorK.J.P.Orton.

Dr. 8. Ruhemann and Dr. J. T.
Hewitt.

Chairman.—Mr. A. D. Hall.

Secretary.—Dr. E. F. Armstrong.

Professor H. E. Armstrong, Pro-
fessor F, Keeble, and Dr. E. J.
Russell.

Chairman.—Professor W. J. Pope.

Secretary.—Professor H. E, Arm-
strong.

Mr. W. Barlow and Professor
W. P. Wynne.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Secretary.—Dr. J. V. Hyre.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Professor A.
Findlay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and
Professor W. J. Pope.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Mas-
son.

Secretary.— Dr. Heber Green.

Mr. J. Cronin, and Mr. P. R. H.
St. John.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Mas-
son.

Secretary.—Mr. V. G. Anderson.

Mr. D. Avery and Mr. H. A. Hunt.

Chairman,—Dr. ¥’. D. Chattaway.

Secretary.—Professor G.T.Morgan.

Mr. P. G. W. Bayly and Dr, N, V.
Sidgwick.

liv RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Recewing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.

To consider the preparation of a
List of Characteristic Fossils.

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan, Ireland.

Fauna and Flora of the Trias of
the Western Midlands.

To excavate Critical Sections in
the Lower Palzozoic Rocks of
England and Wales.

SECTION

To investigate the Biological
Problems incidental to the Bel-
mullet Whaling Station.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Mr. R. H. Tiddeman.

Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse.

Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
Harmer, Rev. 8. N. Harrison,

Dr. J. Horne, Mr. W. Lower |
Carter, Professor W. J. Sollas, |

and Messrs. W. Hill, J. W.
Stather, and J. H. Milton.

Chairman,—Professor P. ¥, Ken-
dall.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Lower Carter.

Mr. H. A. Allen, Professor W. S.

Boulton, Professor G. Cole, Dr. |

A. R. Dwerryhouse, Professors
J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Hol-
land, G. A. Lebour, and 8. H.
Reynolds, Dr. Marie C. Stopes,
Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. E.
Marr, Dr. A. Vaughan, Professor
W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor Grenville
Cole.

Secretary.—Professor T. Johnson.

Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Mr. G. Barrow.

Seeretary.—My. L. J. Wills.

Dr. J. Humphreys, Mr. W. Camp-
bell Smith, Mr. D. M.S. Watson,
and Professor W. W. Watts.

Chairman. — Professor W. W.
Watts.

Secretary. — Professor W. G.

Fearnsides.

| Professor W. S. Boulton, Mr. E. 8S.

Cobbold, Mr. V. C. Illing, Dr.
Lapworth, and Dr. J. E. Marr.

D.—ZOOLOGY.

Chairman.—- Dr. A. E, Shipley.

Secretary.—Professor J. Stanley
Gardiner.

Professor W. A. Herdman, Rev. W.
Spotswood Green, Mr.H.S. Good-
rich, Professor H. W. Marett
Tims, and Mr. R. M. Barrington.

Grants
La. a.
5 00
10 OO
10 00
10 00)
lb 00
|
45 00)

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

ly”

Members of Committee

Nomenclator Animalium Genera
et Sub-genera.

An investigation of the Biology of
the Abrolhos Islands aad the
North-west Coast of Australia
(@morth of Shark’s Bay to
Broome), with particular refer-
ence to the Marine Fauna.

To obtain, as nearly as possible, a
representative Collection of
Marsupials for work upon (@)
the Reproductive Apparatus and
Development, (6) the Brain.

Chairman.—Dr. Chalmers Mit-
chell.

Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

Dr. M. Laurie, Prof. Marett Tims,

and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.

Secretary.— Professor W. J. Dakin.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth and Professor
F, O. Bower.

Chairman.—Professor A. Dendy.

Secretaries.—Professors T. Flynn
and G. EK. Nicholls.

Professor E B. Poulton and Pro-
fessor H. W. Marett Tims.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To investigate the Conditions |

determining the Selection of
Sites and Names for Towns,
with special reference to Aus-
tralia.

The Hydrographical Survey of |

Stor Fjord, Spitsbergen, by Dr.
W.S. Bruce.

To aid in the preparation of a
Bathymetrical Chart of the
Southern Ocean between Aus-
tralia and Antarctica.

Chairman.—Sir C. P, Lucas.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Yule Oldham.

Mr. G. G. Chisholm, Professor A. J.
Herbertson, and Professor J. L.
Myres.

Chairman.—Mr. G. G. Chisholm.

Secretary.—Mr. J. McFarlane.

Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, Capt.
J. K. Davis, and Mr. H. Yule
Oldham.

Chairman.—Professor T.W. Edge-
worth David.

Seeretary.—Capt. J. K. Davis.

Professor J. W. Gregory, Sir C. P.
Lucas, and Professor Orme
Masson.

40 00

100 00

20 00

100 00

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

The question of Fatigue from the
Economie Standpoint, if pos-
sible in co-operation with Sec-
tion I, Sub-section of Psycho-
logy.

Chairman.—Professor Muirhead.

Secretary.— Miss B. L. Hutchins.

Miss A. M. Anderson, Professor
¥, A. Bainbridge, Mr. E. Cad-
bury, Professor 8S. J. Chapman,
Mr. P. Sargant Florence, Pro-
fessor Stanley Kent, Miss M. C.
Matheson, Mrs. Meredith, Dr.
C. S. Myers, Mr. J. W. Rams-
bottom and Dr. Jenkins Robb.

30 00

lvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiwwing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee Grants

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- | Chairman.—Dr. Dugald Clerk. 5
plosions, with special reference | Secretary.— Professor W. E. Dalby.
to Temperature. | Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Bur- |

stall, H. L. Callendar, E. G.

Coker, and H. B. Dixon, Drs.

R. T. Glazebrook and J. A.

Harker, Colonel H.C. L. Holden,

Professors B. Hopkinson and

J. E. Petavel, Captain H. Riall |

Sankey, Professor A. Smithells,

Professor W. Watson, Mr. D. L.

Chapman, and Mr, H. E. |

| Wimperis.

To report on certain of the more | Chairman.—Professor J. Perry. | 50 00
complex Stress Distributions in | Secretaries. — Professors E. G. |
Engineering Materials. Coker and J. EH. Petavel.

; Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree,
Mr. Gilbert Cook, Professor
W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, |
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Messrs.

| <A, R,. Fulton and J. J. Guest, |

Professors J. B. Henderson and

A. EK. H. Love, Mr. W. Mason,

Sir Andrew Noble, Messrs. F.

Rogers and W. A. Scoble, Dr.

T. E. Stanton, and Mr. J. 8.

Wilson.

Szotion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To investigate the Lake Villages ; Chairman.—Professor Boyd Daw- | 20 0 0
in the neighbourhood of Glas- kins.
tonbury in connection with a | Secretary.—Mr. Willoughby Gard-

Committee of the Somerset ner.
Archeological and Natural | Professor W. Ridgeway, Sir Arthur
History Society. J. Evans, Sir C. H. Read, Mr. |
H. Balfour, and Dr. A. Bulleid.
To conduct Explorations with the | Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read. | 20. 1070
object of ascertaining the Age | Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour.
of Stone Circles. Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor W. |

Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir

A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Pro-
me Boyd Dawkins and J. L.
Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis, and
Mr. H. Peake.

To investigate the Physical | Chairman.—Professor G. Elliot 34 16 6 |
Characters of the Ancient Smith.
Egyptians. Secretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. F. Wood-Jones, Dr. A. Keith,
' and Dr. C. G. Seligman.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

To conduct Anthropometric In-
vestigations in the Island of
Cyprus.

To excavate a Palzolithic Site in
Jersey,

To conduct Archzological Inves-
tigations in Malta.

To prepare und publish Miss
Byrne’s Gazetteer and Map of
the Native Tribes of Australia.

The Ductless Glands.

To acquire further knowledge,
Clinical and Experimental, con-
cerning Anzsthetics—general
and local—with special refer-
ence to Deaths by or during
Anesthesia, and their possible
diminution.

Electromotive Phenomena in

Plants.

To investigate the Physiological
and Psychological Factors in
the production of
Nystagmus.

Miners’

1. Receiving Grants of Money— continued.

Members of Committee Grants

St isiid.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.| 50 0 0

Secretary.—Dr. F. C, Shrubsall.

Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett. 50 00

Secretary.—Colonel Warton.

Dr. C. W. Andrews, Mr, H. Bal-

four, Dr. Dunlop, Mr. G. de

Gruchy, and Professor A.

Keith,

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.| 10 00 |
Seeretary.—Dr. T. Ashby.
Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A.C, Haddon,

and Dr. R. R. Marett.
Chairman.—Professor Baldwin] 20 00

Spencer.

Seeretary.— Dr. R. R. Marett.
Mr. H, Balfour.
Section J.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Chairman.—Sir E. A. Schifer. 35 00
Secretary.—Professor Swale Vin-
cent.
Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E.

Shore, and Mrs.W. H. Thompson.
Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. 20 00
Secretary.—Sir F. W. Hewitt.

Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner,

and Dr. G. A. Buckmaster.

Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller. 20 00
Secretary.—Mrs. Waller.
Professors J. B. Farmer, T. John-

son, and Veley, and Dr, F. O’B.

Ellison.

Chairman.—Professor J. H. Muir-| 20 00
head.

Secretary.—Dr. T. G. Maitland.

Dr. J. Jameson Evans and Dr.

C. 8. Myers.

Chairman.—Professor W.D. Halli-| 20 00

The Significance of the Electro-
motive Phenomena of the Heart,

burton.

Seeretary—Dr. Florence Buch-
anan.

Professor A. D. Waller.

lviii

Members of Committee Grants
|
et jae.
Metabolism of Phosphates. | Chairman.—Professor W. A. Os- 20 0 0
borne.
Secretary.—Miss Kincaid. |
Dr. Rothera, }
Section K.—BOTANY.
The Structure of Fossil Plants. | Chairman.—ProfessorF.W.Oliver.| 15 0 0
| Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss.
, Mr. E. Newell Arber, Professor A.C.
|. Seward, and Dr. D. H. Scott.
|

Experimental Studies in the | Chairman.—ProfessorF.F.Black- | 45 0 0

Physiology of Heredity. | man.
| Secretary.—Mr. R. P. Gregory
| Professors Bateson and Keeble |
and Miss E. R. Saunders.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic . Chairman.—Professor F. O. Bower.) 25 0 0
Station in Jamaica. _ Seeretary.— Professor R. H. Yapp. |

| Professors R. Buller, F. W. Oliver,
and F, E. Weiss.

To carry out a Research on the | Chairman.—Professor ¥. O. Bower. 50 0 0
Influence of varying percent- Secretary.— Professor A. J. Ewart.
ages of Oxygen and of various | Professor F. F. Blackman.

Atmospheric Pressures upon
Geotropic and Heliotropic Ir-
ritability and Curvature.

Sec1ion L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
To inquire into and report upon Chairman.—Dr. C. 8S. Myers. 30 00 |

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

the methods and results of
research into the Mental and
Physical Factors involved in
Education.

Secretary.—Professor J. A. Green.

Professor J. Adams, Dr. G. A.
Auden, Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Mr. ©. Burt, Professor
E. P. Culverwell, Mr. G. F.
Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Pro-
fessor R. A. Gregory, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Professor W.
McDougall, Dr. T. P. Nunn,
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. F. C.
Shrubsall, Mr.H. Bompas Smith,
Dr. CU. Spearman, and Mr. A. E.
Twentyman.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

The Influence of School Books |
| Seeretary.—Mr. G. F. Daniell.

upon Eyesight.

To inquire into and report on the |

number, distribution and re-
spective values of Scholarships,
Exhibitions, and Bursaries held
by University Students during
their undergraduate course, and
on funds private and open avail-
able for their augmentation.

_ To examine, inquire into, and re-

port on the Character, Work,
and Maintenance of Museums,
with a view to their Organisa-

tion and Development as In- |
stitutions for Education and —

Research; and especially to
inquire into the Requirements
of Schools.

Members of Committee

Chairman.—Dr. G. A. Auden.
Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D.

Kggar, Professor R. A. Gregory, |

Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr. W. E.

Sumpner, and Mr. Trevor Walsh. |

Chairman.—Sir Henry Miers.

Secretary. —Professor Marcus Har-
tog.

Miss Lilian J. Clarke, Miss B.
Foxley, Professor H. Bompas
Smith, and Principal Griffiths.

Chairman.—Professor J. A. Green.

Secretaries.— Mr. H. Bolton and
Dr. J. A. Clubb.

Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. C. A. Buck-
master, Mr. Ernest Gray, Mr.
M. D. Hill, Dr. W. E. Hoyle,
Professors E. J. Garwood and
P. Newberry, Sir Richard
Temple, Mr. H. Hamshaw
Thomas, Professor F. E. Weiss,
Mrs. J. White, Rev. H. Browne,
Drs. A. C. Haddon and H. §S.
Harrison, Mr. Herbert R. Rath-
bone, and Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Com-

Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.

mittee for the preparation of | Secretary.—Mr.W. Mark Webb.

their Report.

Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E, H.
Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr.
T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, and the President
and General Officers of the
Association.

lix

Grants

20 00)

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.*

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for [nvestigation, or Purpose |
|

Members of Committee

Sxectioy A.A—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.

To aid the work of Establishing a Solar
Observatory in Australia.

*Determination of Gravity at Sea.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Research on the Utilization of Brown
Coal Bye-Products.

Toreport on the Botanical and Chemical
Characters of the Eucalypts and their
Correlation.

Secrion C.—GEOLOGY.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

To consider the Preparation of a List
of Stratigraphical Names, used in the
British Isles, in connection with the
Lexicon of Stratigraphical Names in
course of preparation by the Inter-
national Geological Congress.

| Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge.
Secretary.— Dr. W. H. Eccles.
Mr. 8. G. Brown, Dr. C. Chree, Professor

A. 8. Eddington, Dr. Erskine-Murray,
Professors J. A. Fleming, G. W. O.
Howe, H. M. Macdonald, and J. W.
Nicholson, Sir H. Norman, Captain
H. R. Sankey, Dr. A. Schuster, Dr.
W.N.Shaw, Professor 8. P. Thompson,
and Professor H. H. Turner.

Chairman.—

Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer,
Mr. F. McClean, and Professors A.
Schuster and H. H. Turner,

Chairman.—Professor A, E. Love.

Secretary.—Professor W. G. Duftield.

Mr. T. W. Chaundy and Professors A. 8.
Eddington and H. H. Turner.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Masson.
Secretary.—My. P. G. W. Bayly.
Mr. D. Avery.

Chairman.—Professor H, E. Armstrong.

Secretary.— Mr. H. G. Smith.

Dr. Andrews, Mr. R. T. Baker, Professor
F. O. Bower, Mr. R. H. Cambage,
Professor A. J. Ewart, Professor C. B.
Fawsitt, Dr. Heber Green, Dr. Cuth-
bert Hall, Professors Orme Masson,
Rennie, and Robinson, and Mr, St. |
Jobn.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretaries.—Professors W. W. Watts and |
8. H. Reynolds. i

Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. |
V. Crook, Professor E. J. Garwood,
and Messrs. R. Kidston, A. 8. Reid, |
J. J. H. Teall, R. Welch, and W.
Whitaker.

Chairman.—Dr, J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Dr. F'. A. Bather. |

Professor Grenville Cole, Mr. Bernard |
Hobson, Professor Lebour, Dr. J.
Horne, Dr. A. Strahan, and Professor |
W. W. Watts.

* Excepting the case of Committees receiving grants from the Caird Fund (p. lxviii),

RESEARCH COMMITTEES,

lxi

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

To consider the Nomenclature of the /

Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous,
and Permian Rocks of the Southern
Hemisphere.

Members of Committee

Chairman.—Professor T, W. Edgeworth
David.
Secretary.— Professor BE. W. Skeats.

| Mr. W.8. Dun, Sir T. H. Holland, Pro-

fessor Howchin, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh,
and Professor W. G. Woolnough.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

*To aid competent Investigators se-
lected by the Committee to carry on
definite pieces of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples.

To investigate the Feeding Habits of
British Birds by a study of the
contents of the crops and gizzards
of both adults and nestlings, and by
collation of observational evidence,
with the object of obtaining precise
knowledge as to the economic status
of many of our commoner birds
affecting rural science.

Todefray expensesconnected with work
on the Inheritance and Development
of Secondary Sexual Characters in
Birds.

To summon meetings in London or else-
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre-
spondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with
power to raise by subscription from
each Zoologist a sum of money for
defraying current expenses of the
Organisation.

To nominate competent Naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

To formulate a Definite System on
which Collectors should record their
captures,

Chairman.—Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Secretary.— Dr. J. H. Ashworth.

Mr. G. P. Bidder, Professor F. O. Bower,
Drs. W. B. Hardy and 8, IF. Harmer,
Professor 8. J. Hickson, Sir HE. Ray
Lankester, Professor W. C. McIntosh,
and Dy, A. D. Waller.

| Chairman.—Dr. A. B. Shipley.

Secretary.—Mr. H. 8. Leigh.

Mr. J. N. Halbert, Professor Robert
Newstead, Messrs. Clement Reid,
A. G. L. Rogers, and F. V. Theobald,
Professor F. BE. Weiss, Dr. C. Gordon
Hewitt, and Professors S. J. Hickson,
F. W. Gamble, G. H. Carpenter, and
J. Arthur Thomson.

Chairvman.—Professor G, C. Bourne.

Secretary.—Myr, Geoflrey Smith.

Mr. E. 8. Goodrich, Dr. W. T. Calman,
and Dr. Marett Tims.

Chairman.—Sir BE. Ray Lankester.

Secretary.—Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Professors G. C. Bourne, J. Cossar Ewart,
M. Hartog, and W. A, Herdman, Mr.
M. D. Hill, Professors J. Graham Kerr
and Minchin, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
Professors E. B. Poulton and Stanley
Gardiner, and Dr, A. E, Shipley.

Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A.
Dendy.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P.
Hill, and Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Chairxman.—Professor J. W. H. Trail.

Secretary.—Mr. F. Balfour Browne.

Drs. Scharff and E. J. Bles, Professors
G. H. Carpenter and E. B. Poulton,
and Messrs. A. G, Tansley and R, Lloyd
Praeger.

* See note on preceding page.

lxii

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

A Natural History Survey of the Isle
of Man.

Chairman.—Professor W, A. Herdman.

Secretary.—Mr. P. M. C. Kermode.

Dr. W. T. Calman, Rev. J. Davidson,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor E. W.
MacBride, and Lord Raglan.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To inquire into the choice and style of | Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for
School and University Use.

|
|
|

Secretary.—Rev. W. J. Barton.

Professors R. L. Archer and R. N. R.

Brown, Mr. G. G. Chisholm, Professor
H. N. Dickson, Mr. A. R. Hinks, Mr.
O. J. R. Howarth, Sir Duncan John-
ston, and Mr. EK. A. Reeves.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

To consider and report on the Stan-
dardization of Impact Tests,

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest.

To conduct Archeological and Ethno-
logical Researches in Crete.

To report on the present state of know-
ledge of the Prehistoric Civilisation
of the Western Mediterranean with
a view to future research.

Toconduct Excavationsin Haster Island.

To report on Paleolithic Sites in the
West of England.

Chairman.—Professor W. H. Warren.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Vicars.

Mr. Julius, Professor Gibson, Mr. Hough-
ton, and Professor Payne.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.
Secretary.—

Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, and |

Professor J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—My. D. G. Hogarth.
Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. |

Duckworth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor
W. Ridgeway, and Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.
Secretary.—Dr, T. Ashby.

| Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. D. G.

Hogarth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor
J. L. Myres, and Mr, A. J. B. Wace.

Chairman.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.
Secretary.—Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

| Mr. R. R. Marett and Dr.C. G. Seligman.

Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins.
Secretary.—Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.
Professor A. Keith.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

lxili

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

The Teaching of Anthropology.

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.

To report on the Distribution of Bronze
Age Implements.

To investigate and ascertain the Distri-
bution of Artificial Islands in the
| lochs of the Highlands of Scotland.

To co-operate with Local Committees
in Excavations on Roman Sites in
Britain.

Chairman.—Sir Richard Temple.
Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

| Sir E. F. im Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Dr.
C. G. Seligman, Professor G. Elliot
Smith, Dr. R. R. Marett, Professor
P. E. Newberry, Dr. G. A. Auden, Pro-
fessors T. H. Bryce, P. Thompson,
R. W. Reid, H. J. Fleure, and J. L.
Myres, Sir B. C. A. Windle, and Pro-
fessors R. J. A. Berry, Baldwin Spencer,
Sir T. Anderson Stuart, and E. C.
Stirling.

| Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

_ Secretary.—Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

| Professors R. C. Bosanquet and J. L.
| Myres.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Secretary.— Mr, H. Peake.

Professor W. Ridgeway, Mr. H. Balfour,
Sir C. H. Read, Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, and Dr. R. R. Marett.

Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins.

Secretary.—Prof. J. L. Myres.

Professors T. H. Bryce and W. Ridgeway,
Dr. A. Low, and Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

| Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

Secretary.—Professor R. C. Bosanquet.

Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby Gardner,
and Professor J. L. Myres.

Secrion I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

The Dissociation of Oxy-Hemoglobin
at High Altitudes,

Colour Vision and Colour Blindness.

Calorimetric Observations on Man in
Health and in Febrile Conditions.

Further Researches on the Structure
and Function of the Mammalian
Heart.

The Binocular Combination of Kine-
matograph Pictures of different
Meaning, and its relation to the

Binocular Combinaticn of simpler |

Perceptions.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling.
Secretary.—Dr. J. Barcroft.
Dr. W. B. Hardy.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling.

Secretary.—Dr. Edridge-Green.

Professor Leonard Hill, Professor A. W.
Porter, Dr. A. D. Waller, Professor C. S.
Sherrington, and Dr. F. W. Mott.

Chatrman.—Professor J. 8. Macdonald.
Secretary.—Dr. Francis A. Duffield.
| Dr. Keith Lucas.

Chairman.— Professor C. 8. Sherrington.
Secretary.—Professor Stanley Kent.
Dr. Florence Buchanan.

| Chairman.—Dr. C. S. Myers.
Secretary.—T. H. Pear.

lxiv

RESOLUTIONS, ETC.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money —continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Section K.—BOTANY.

To consider and report on the ad-
visability and the best means of
securing definite Areas for the
Preservation of Types of British
Vegetation.

The Investigation of the Vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire.

Chairman.—Professor F. E. Weiss.

Secretary. —Mr. A. G. Tansley.

Professor J. W. H. Trail, Mr. R. Lloyd
Praeger, Professor F. W. Oliver, Pro-
fessor R. W. Phillips, Dr. C. E. Moss,
and Messrs. G. C. Druce and H. W. T.
Wager.

Chairman.—Mr. A. G. Tansley.
Secretary.—My. R. 8. Adamson.
Dr. C. E. Moss and Professor R. H. Yapp.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To take notice of, and report upon |
changes in, Regulations—whether
Legislative, Administrative, or made
by Local Authorities — affecting
Secondary and Higher Education.

The Aims and Limits of Examinations.

Chairman.—Professor H. E, Armstrong.

Secretary.—Major E, Gray.

Miss Coignan, Principal Griffiths, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Sir Horace Plunkett,
Mr. H. Ramage, Professor M. EH. Sadler,
and Rt. Rev. J. HE. C. Welldon.

Chairman.—Professor M. E. Sadler.

Secretary.—Mr. P. J. Hartog.

Mr. D. P. Berridge, Professor G. H.
Bryan, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Professor
R. A. Gregory, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Miss C. L. Laurie, Dr. W.
McDougall, Mr: David Mair, Dr. T. P.
Nunn, Sir W. Ramsay, Rt. Rev. J. E. C.
Welldon, Dr. Jessie White, and Mr.
G. U. Yule.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.
Section A.—Joint Discussion with Section B on the Structure of Atoms and

Molecules.

Section A.—Dr. E. Goldstein: Salts coloured by Cathode Rays.
Section C.—Discussion on Physiography of Arid Lands.

Section D.—Discussion on Antarctica.

Section I.—Dr. J. W. Barrett: The Problem of the Visual Requirements of the

Sailor and the Railway Employee.

Section M.—Dr. Lyman J. Briggs: Dry-farming Investigations in the United States.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable,
for action.

(a) From Sections A and C.

‘That in view of the fact that meteorites, which convey information of world-
wide importance, are sometimes disposed of privately, in such a way as to deprive
the public of this information, the Council be requested to take such steps as may
initiate international legislation on the matter.’

(b) From Section A.

‘That the British Association respectfully urge the need for the establishment
in Australia of a Bureau of Weights and Measures, with the view of legalising the

RESEARCH COMMITTHES. lxv

metric system as an alternative standard (as in Great Britain). They would also
cordially welcome the inclusion of Australia as a member of the International
Convention.’

‘That the British Association learns with great satisfaction that the State
Government of Victoria has put a definite annual grant at the disposal of the
Director of the Melbourne Observatory for printing the work already done at the
Observatory. It is very desirable that every effort should be made to publish as soon
as possible the arrears accumulated during the past thirty years.’

(d) Hrom Sections C and L.

‘The Committees of the Geographical and Geological Sections of the British
Association wish to draw attention to the high scientific value and practical
importance of systematic glacial observation in New Zealand, and venture to urge
upon the favourable consideration of the Government of the Dominion the great
importance of continuing and extending the work which is now being done in this
direction by officers of the Government, as far as possible in conformity with the
methods adopted by the Commission Internationale des Glaciers.’

(e) From Sections Cand EL.

‘The Geographical and Geological Sections of the British Association respect-
fully request the Secretary of State for the Colonies to establish on certain islands
in the Coral Seas—in extension of a plan that has lately been presented to His
Excellency the Governor of Fiji, and by him submitted for the favourable con-
sideration of the Legislative Council of that Colony—a number of bench-marks,
with respect to which the mean level of the sea surface shall be accurately deter-
mined once every ten years, in order to discover, after a century or longer, whether
any change takes place in the altitude of land with respect to the sea.

‘It is suggested that a uniform plan for this work be prepared by the appropriate
Government department, and that an abstract of the results obtained for each decade
be forwarded to the British Association for publication.’

(f) From Section C.

‘ That the Committee of Section C submits for favourable consideration to the
committee of Recommendations of the British Association the question of urging
the Federal and State Governments-in Australia to co-operate in undertaking, as
soon as possible, a gravity survey of the Earth’s crust within the area of the
Commonwealth. The Committee suggests that the work be commenced in the
region of the Great Rift Valley of Australia, extending from near Adelaide north-
wards to Lake Eyre.’

(g) From Section E.

‘The Committee of Section E most warmly favours the project of a uniform
Map of the World on a scale of 1:1,000,000, and expresses the hope that the sheets
of Australia may be undertaken as soon as possible, on the same plan as has lately
been adopted by the War Office in London for a map of Africa, and by the
Geological Survey in Washington for the U.S.A. To this end they regard it as
desirable that in the extensive surveys which the several States of the Common-
wealth are carrying on, as much stress should be laid upon the geographical features
of the land, the watercourses and the mountains, as upon property boundaries, and
that in particular the determination of altitudes should be carried on, in order
eventually to provide the basis for contoured maps.’

(h) From Sections D and K.

‘It is with much pleasure that we ascertain that a Bill has been prepared by the
present Government of South Australia for the establishment of a reserve of 300
square miles situated on the western end of Kangaroo Island for the preservation of
the fauna and flora, which are fast being exterminated on the mainland. and that
this reserve will be placed under the control of a Board nominated by the University
of Adelaide and the Government. We trust that this Bill will become law at an
early date.’

Ixvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

(i) From the Committee uf Recommendations.

‘That in view of the successful issue of the Australian Meeting of the Associa-
tion, the Council be asked to consider the best means of bringing into closer
relationship the British Association and scientific representatives from the
Dominions overseas.’

Synopsis of Grants of Money (exclusive of Grants from the Caird

Fund) appropriated for Scientific Purposes on behalf of the General
Committee at the Australian Meeting, September 1914. The
Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the
Grants are prefixed to the respective Research Committees.

Section A.—Mathematical and Physical Science.

6, a.
*Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations ......... 760 O O
*Shaw, Dr. W. N.—Upper Atmosphere ...................0.000 008 235) 10 Ag)
*Ramsay, Sir W.—Annual Table of Constants and Numerical

A ata Sale Pees Sake aoe ci aise sO ape a aes See eae 40 0 0
*Hill, Professor M. J. M.—Calculation of Mathematical

Thies 2s et ee ee SI 2 GOP Ra gene Cele a) —)

Section B.—Chemistry.
*Perkin, Dr. W. H.—-Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances 15 0 0
*Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ............ 40 0 0
*Kipping, Professor F. §.—Transformation of Aromatic Nitro-

AMINES... see ees eee ne Sas fe Jase cates tare era Ee OO
*Hall, A. D.—Study of Plant Enzymes. Sets 30 0 0
*Pope, Professor W. J.—Correlation of Crystalline Form with

WiGlecilar Struehures sc tsesenc: hac kente senna Rar sreeeete, ere 25 0 0
*Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Solubility Phenomena ......... 10-0 0

Masson, Professor Orme.—Chemical Investigation of Natural
Plant ‘Products soz. See ee es ie ee ce 13) 0 Yes! Oo
Masson, Professor Orme.—Influence of Weather Conditions
on Nitrogen Acids in Rainfall . ee Pk
Chattaway, Dr. F. D.—Non- aromatic Diazonium Salts ...... 10 0 0
Section C.—Geology.
*Tiddeman, R. H.—Erratic Blocks .......... Mee gOo 0
*Kendall, Professor P. F.—List of Ghanterer eee ees ak 10 0 O
*Cole, Professor Grenville.—Old Red Sandstone Rocks of

Kiltorcan ....... ls : i 1070-0
*Barrow, G. —Trias of ‘Western Midlahden tases ava, ao 10 0 0
*Watts, Professor W. W.—Sections in Lower Paleozoic

Rocks «2030s 050d 55 oe Eee eee eaetoceae cer Lo» 40) -O

Carried forward ..> 24 SEU ess nennorinesbon-nreve ase aee, Oe O

~ Reappointed

+ In addition, the Council are authorised to expend a sum not exceeding £70 on
the printing of circulars, &c., in connection with the Committee on Seismological
Observations.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

£
EPGUBIG LOE WALD waxisccce cc. MMMs tay padace'sca vee denssg (44D
Section D. ~ rodlegy,
*Shipley, Dr. A. E—Belmullet Whaling Station ............... 45
*Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers.—Nomenclator ” Animalium.. Br 25
Herdman, Professor W. A. —Biology of Abrolhos Islands... 40
Dendy, Professor A.—Collection of Marsupials ............... - 100
Section E.—Geography.

Lucas, Sir C. P.—Conditions determining Selection of Sites
APD IEE TG Sig 0) ol Nas 2 a a 20
Chisholm, G. G.—Survey of Stor Fjord, Spitsbergen ... ..... 50

David, Professor T. W. E.—Antarctic Bathymetrical Chart 100

Section F.—Economic Science and Statistics.
*Muirhead, Professor J. F.—Fatigue from Economic Stand-

eMart oe es seas cS earner «sy ooi acwneasdceue jagehause. COU
Section G.—Engineering.

*Clerk, Dr. Dugald.—Gaseous Explosions .................... ... 50

*Perry, Professor J.—Stress Distributions ........................ 50

Section H.—Anthropology.
*Dawkins, Professor Boyd.—Lake Villages in the neighbour-

eral bwais x LSTORMOUET YO nia v fee ae cede oe hinck Bete sab doedna 20
*Read, sir C. H.—Age of Stone Circles ...... 26.0.5... .secsccse ees 20
*Smith, Professor G. Elliot.—Physical Characters of the

Ancient Egyptians .. 34
*Myres, Professor J. L. ~ Anthropometric ‘Investigations in

EE BU i CO ed kee OR PEE TE A REE er nO Ee OCB RRS LIE 50
*Marett, Dr. R. R.— Paleolithic Site in Jersey .................. 50

Myres, Professor J. L.—Excavations in Malta.. eek 10
Spencer, Professor Baldwin.— Gazetteer and Map of Native
Tribes of Australia .. Ga Makersivess watiocattectteudrivesticeey OU

Section I.— Physiology

*Schafer, Sir E. A.—The Ductless Glands ..,..............ccceaee 35
*Waller, Dr. A. D.—Anesthetics ....... samme,
*Waller, Dr. A. D.—Electromotive Phenomena i in 1 Plants... Epes 20
*Muir head, Professor J. F.—Miners’ Nystagmus ................ 20
Osborne, Professor W. A.—Metabolism of Phosphates | Caer 20
Halliburton, Professor W. D.—Electromotive Phenomena of
Pie ERE Uae ate Ayah eben We SBR eis cu ails <es cadnks'nmasirasls aad tedoas 20
Section K.— Botany.
*Oliver, Professor F. W.—Structure of Fossil Plants ......... 15
*Blackman, Professor F. F.—Physiology of Heredity ......... 45

*Bower, Professor F. O.—Renting of Cinchona Botanic Sta-
LO Mae yes) eA NAN LC ae saraiieiciestr eas sicis'e vstiscisiseereie urd aalaekisle ees opens soic.es +

REE MMOWHEO! 204228 ccc rox cas sicnepemnaer deus caitees << £1,079

* Reappointed.

oO OS

Sorc

oococo

Src

i=) oocooco So coo

(7 Sie = Fae ae = Woe)

STISH BI

Py * .
Upar ret Oo

bxvili SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

Leeds
IBIOU LIE LOL WANG.) asides es crcl satee geaaeisns sie otoare 1,379.16 <6
Bower, Professor F. O.—Influence of Percentages of Oxygen,
&ec., on Geotropic and Heliotropic Irritation and Curva-
ERIE Pc toNe ed, Namen eee san ate eyrurclanteltsoe patpins heufe.e couen'eir tie Sean 50= 00
Lawson, Professor A. A.— Australian Cycadacer ............ 2 0 0
Lang, Professor W. H.—Sections of Australian Fossil Plants 25 0 0

Section L.—LEducation.
*Myers, Dr. C. S.—Mental and Physical Factors involved in

PCALIOM sip u dpa ledeisiaa aelaee canes tes Ades een sie MRLs oomee ove gat 30 0.0

* Auden, Dr. G. A.—Influence of School Books on Eyesight... 5 0 O

* Miers, Sir H.—Scholarships, &c., held by University Students 5 0 0
*Green, Professor J. A.—Character, Work, and Maintenance

OP Mase WAS Hie, ners basen s nate Parsoterahog ss ssa5 sp «aden Meena ieee 20 0 0

Corresponding Societies Committee.
* Whitaker, W.—For Preparation of Report ..........:..s.s0008 25 0 0
OGRE a0 scus «soot £1,634 16 6

* Reappointed.
+ Including £70 as specified in footnote on p. Ixvi.

Carrp Funp.

An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.

The Council in its Report to the General Committee at the Bir-
mingham Meeting made certain recommendations as to the administra-
tion of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the
Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913.

The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the
Council to December 1914 :—

Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. 1xi).—50/. (1912-13) ; 1007.
(1913-14) ; 1007. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Com-
mittee’s report.

Seismology Committee (p. lii).—100/. (1913-14); 1002. annually in
future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report.

Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. 1x). — 5007. (1913-14).

Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the
Royal Society).—250/.

Committee on Determination of Gravity at Sea (p. 1|x).—1001.
(1914-15). .

Mr. F. Sargent, Bristol University, in connection with his Astro-
nomical Work.—10I. (1914).

ir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000/.
¥be Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity.
9%

i -

-PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS
BY

Proressor WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.RB.S.,
PRESIDENT.

Part I—MELBOURNE:!

Tue outstanding feature of this Meeting must be the fact that we are
here—in Australia. It is the function of a President to tell the
Association of advances in science, to speak of the universal rather than
of the particular or the temporary. There will be other opportunities
of expressing the thoughts which this event must excite in the dullest
heart, but it is right that my first words should take account of those
achievements of organisation and those acts of national generosity by
which it has come to pass that we are assembled in this country. Let
us, too, on this occasion, remember that all the effort, and all the
- goodwill, that binds Australia to Britain would have been powerless to
bring about such a result had it not been for those advances in science
which have given man a control of the forces of Nature. For we are
here by virtue of the feats of genius of individual men of science,
giant-variations from the common level of our species; and since I am
going soon to speak of the significance of individual variation, I cannot
introduce that subject better than by calling to remembrance the line
of pioneers in chemistry, in physics, and in engineering, by the work-
ing of whose rare—or, if you will, abnormal—intellects a meeting of
the British Association on this side of the globe has been made physically
possible.

I have next to refer to the loss within the year of Sir David Gill,
a former President of this Association, himself one of the outstanding
great. His greatness lay in the power of making big foundations. Ha
built up the Cape Observatory; he organised international geodesy ; he
conceived and carried through the plans for the photography of the
whole sky, a work in which Australia is bearing a conspicuous part.

> Delivered in Melbourne on Friday, August 14, 1914.
B2

4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Astronomical observation ig now organised on an international scale,
and of this great scheme Gill was the heart and soul. His labours have
ensured a base from which others will proceed to discovery otherwise
impossible. His name will be long remembered with veneration and

gratitude.

As the subject of the Addresses which I am to deliver here and
in Sydney I take Heredity. I shall attempt to give the essence
of the discoveries made by Mendelian or analytical methods of
study, and I shall ask you to contemplate the deductions which these
physiological facts suggest in application both to evolutionary theory at
large and to the special case of the natural history of human society.

Recognition of the significance of heredity is modern. The term
itself in its scientific sense is no older than Herbert Spencer. Animals
and plants are formed as pieces of living material split from the body
of the parent organisms. Their powers and faculties are fixed in their
physiological origin. They are the consequence of a genetic process,
and yet it is only lately that this genetic process has become the subject
of systematic research and experiment. The curiosity of naturalists
has of course always been attracted to such problems; but that accurate
knowledge of genetics is of paramount importance in any attempt to
understand the nature of living things has only been realised quite
lately even by naturalists, and with casual exceptions the laity still
know nothing of the matter. Historians debate the past of the human
species, and statesmen order its present or profess to guide its future
as if the animal Man, the unit of their calculations, with his vast
diversity of powers, were a homogeneous material, which can be
multiplied like shot.

The reason for this neglect lies in ignorance and misunderstanding
of the nature of Variation; for not until the fact of congenital diversity
is grasped, with all that it imports, does knowledge of the system of
hereditary transmission stand out as a primary necessity in the con-
struction of any theory of Evolution, or any scheme of human polity.

The first full perception of the significance of variation we owe to
Darwin. The present generation of evolutionists realises perhaps more
. fully than did the scientific world in the last century that the theory of
Evolution had occupied the thoughts of many and found acceptance
with not a few before ever the ‘ Origin’ appeared. We have come also
to the conviction that the principle of Natural Selection cannot have
been the chief factor in delimiting the species of animals and plants,
such as we now with fuller knowledge see them actually to be. We
are even more sceptical as to the validity of that appeal to changes in
the conditions of life as direct causes of modification, upon which
latterly at all events Darwin laid much emphasis. But that he was the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5

first to provide a body of fact demonstrating the variability of living
things, whatever be its causation, can never be questioned.

There are some older collections of evidence, chiefly the work of
the French school, especially of Godron?—and I would mention also
the almost forgotten essay of Wollaston *—these however are only
fragments in comparison. Darwin regarded variability as a property
inherent in living things, and eventually we must consider whether this
conception is well founded ; but postponing that inquiry for the present,
we may declare that with him began a general recognition of variation
as a phenomenon widely occurring in Nature.

If a population consists of members which are not alike but differen-
tiated, how will their characteristics be distributed among their off-
spring? This is the problem which the modern student of heredity
sets out to investigate. Formerly it was hoped that by’ the simple
inspection of embryological processes the modes of heredity might be
ascertained, the actual mechanism by which the offspring is formed
from the body of the parent. In that endeavour a noble pile of
evidence has been accumulated. All that can be made visible by
existing methods has been seen, but we come little if at all nearer to
the central mystery. We see nothing that we can analyse further—
nothing that can be translated into terms less inscrutable than the
physiological events themselves. Not only does embryology give no
direct aid, but the failure of cytology is, so far as I can judge, equally
complete. The chromosomes of nearly related creatures may be
utterly different both in number, size, and form. Only one piece of
evidence encourages the old hope that a connection might be traceable
between the visible characteristics of the body and those of the chromo-
somes. I refer of course to the accessory chromosome, which in many
animals distinguishes the spermatozoon about to form a female in
fertilisation. Even it however cannot be claimed as the cause of
sexual differentiation, for it may be paired in forms closely allied to
those in which it is unpaired or accessory. The distinction may be
present or wanting, like any other secondary sexual character. Indeed,
so long as no one can show consistent distinctions between the
cytological characters of somatic tissues in the same individual we
can scarcely expect to perceive such distinctions between the chromo-
somes of the various types.

For these methods of attack we now substitute another, less
ambitious, perhaps, because less comprehensive, but not less direct.
If we cannot see how a fowl by its egg and its sperm gives rise to

? De VEspéce et des Races dans les Btres Organisés, 1859.
* On the Variation of Species, 1856.

6 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

a chicken or how a Sweet Pea from its ovule and its pollen grain
produces another Sweet Pea, we at least can watch the system
by which the differences between the various kinds of fowls or
between the various kinds of Sweet Peas are distributed among the
offspring. By thus breaking the main problem up into its parts
we give ourselves fresh chances. This analytical study we call
Mendelian because Mendel was the first to apply it. To be sure, he
did not approach the problem by any such line of reasoning as I
have sketched. His object was to determine the genetic definite-
ness of species; but though in his writings he makes no mention of
inheritance it-is clear that he had the extension in view. By cross-
breeding he combined the characters of varieties in mongrel individuals
and set himself to see how these characters would be distributed among
the individuals of subsequent generations. Until he began this analysis
nothing but the vaguest answers to such a question had been attempted.
The existence of any orderly system of descent was never even sus-
pected. In their manifold complexity human characteristics seemed
to follow no obvious system, and the fact was taken as a fair sample
of the working of heredity.

Misconception was especially brought in by describing descent in
terms of ‘blood.’ The common speech uses expressions such as
consanguinity, pure-blooded, half-blood, and the like, which call up a
misleading picture to the mind. Blood is in some respects a fluid,
and thus it is supposed that this fluid can be both quantitatively and
qualitatively diluted with other bloods, just as treacle can be diluted
with water. Blood in primitive physiology being the peculiar vehicle
of life, at once its essence and its corporeal abode, these ideas of
dilution and compounding of characters in the commingling of bloods
inevitably suggest that the ingredients of the mixture once combined are
inseparable, that they can be brought together in any relative amounts,
and in short that in heredity we are concerned mainly with a quantita-
tive problem. ‘Truer notions of genetic physiology are given by the
Hebrew expression ‘ seed.’ If we speak of a man as ‘ of the blood-
royal ’ we think at once of plebeian dilution, and we wonder how much
of the royal fluid is likely to be ‘in his veins’; but if we say he is
‘ of the seed of Abraham’ we feel something of the permanence and
indestructibility of that germ which can be divided and scattered among
all nations, but remains recognisable in type and characteristics after
4,000 years.

I knew a breeder who had a chest containing bottles of coloured
liquids by which he used to illustrate the relationships of his dogs,
pouring from one to another and titrating them quantitatively to illus-
trate their pedigrees. Galton was beset by the same kind of mistake
when he promulgated his ‘ Law of Ancestral Heredity.’ With modern

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 7

research all this has been cleared away. The allotment of character-
istics among offspring is not accomplished by the exudation of drops
of a tincture representing the sum of the characteristics of the parent
organism, but by a process of cell-division, in which numbers of these
characters, or rather the elements upon which they depend, are sorted
out among the resulting germ-cells in an orderly fashion. What these
elements, or factors as we call them, are we do not know. That they
are in some way directly transmitted by the material of the ovum and
of the spermatozoon is obvious, but it seems to me unlikely that they
are in any simple or literal sense material particles. I suspect rather
that their properties depend on some phenomenon of arrangement.
However that may be, analytical breeding proves that it is according
to the distribution of these genetic factors, to use a non-committal term,
that the characters of the offspring are decided. The first business of
experimental genetics is to determine their number and interactions,
and then to make an analysis of the various types of life.

Now the ordinary genealogical trees, such as those which the stud-
books provide in the case of the domestic animals, or the Heralds’
College provides in the case of man, tell nothing of all this. Such
methods of depicting descent cannot even show the one thing they are
devised to show—purity of ‘ blood.’ For at last we know the physio- —
logical meaning of that expression. An organism is pure-bred when it .
has been formed by the union in fertilisation of two germ-cells which
are alike in the factors they bear; and since the factors for the several
characteristics are independent of each other, this question of purity
must be separately considered for each of them. A man, for example,
may be pure-bred in respect of his musical ability and cross-bred in
respect of the colour of his eyes or the shape of his mouth. Though
we know nothing of the essential nature of these factors, we know
a good deal of their powers. They may confer height, colour, shape,
instincts, powers both of mind and body—indeed, so many of the
attributes which animals and plants possess, that we feel justified in
the expectation that with continued analysis they will be proved to be
responsible for most if not all of the differences by which the varying
individuals of any species are distinguished from each other. I will
not assert that the greater differences which characterise distinct Species
are due generally to such independent factors, but that is the conclusion
to which the available evidence points. All this is now so well under-
stood, and has been so often demonstrated and expounded, that details
of evidence are now superfluous.

But for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with such work let me
briefly epitomise its main features and consequences. Since genetic
factors are definite things, either present in or absent from any germ-
cell, the individual may be either ‘ pure-bred ’ for any particular factor,

8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

or its absence, if he is constituted by the union of two germ-cells both
possessing or both destitute of that factor. If the individual is thus
pure, all his germ-cells will in that respect be identical, for they are
simply bits of the similar germ-cells which united in fertilisation to
produce the parent organism. We thus reach the essential principle,
that an organism cannot pass on to offspring a factor which it did not
itself receive in fertilisation. Parents, therefore, which are both
destitute of a given factor can only produce offspring equally destitute
of it; and, on the contrary, parents both pure-bred for the presence
of a factor produce offspring equally pure-bred for its presence.
Whereas the germ-cells of the pure-bred are all alike, those of the
cross-bred, which results from the union of dissimilar germ-cells, are
mixed in character. Hach positive factor segregates from its negative
opposite, so that some germ-cells carry the factor and some do not.
Once the factors have been identified by their effects, the average com-
position of the several kinds of families formed from the various
matings can be predicted.

Only those who have themselves witnessed the fixed operations of
these simple rules can feel their full significance. We come to look
behind the simulacrum of the individual body, and we endeavour to
disintegrate its features into the genetic elements by whose union the
body was formed. Set out in cold general phrases such discoveries
may seem remote from ordinary life. Become familiar with them and
you will find your outlook on the world has changed. Watch the effects
of segregation among the living things with which you have to do—
plants, fowls, dogs, horses, that mixed concourse of humanity we call
the English race, your friends’ children, your own children, yourself—
and however firmly imagination be restrained to the bounds of the
known and the proved, you will feel something of that range of insight
into Nature which Mendelism has begun to give. The question is
often asked whether there are not also in operation systems of descent
quite other than those contemplated by the Mendelian rules. I myself
have expected such discoveries, but hitherto none have been plainly
demonstrated. It is true we are often puzzled by the failure of a
parental type to reappear in its completeness after a cross—the merino
sheep or the fantail pigeon, for example. These exceptions may still
be plausibly ascribed to the interference of a multitude of factors, a
suggestion not easy to disprove; though it seems to me equally likely
that segregation has been in reality imperfect. Of the descent of quan-
titative characters we still know practically nothing. . These and hosts
of difficult cases remain almost untouched. In particular the discovery
of KH. Baur, and the evidence of Winkler in regard to his ‘ graft hybrids,’
both showing that the sub-epidermal layer of a plant—the layer from
which the germ-cells are derived—may bear exclusively the characters

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 9

of a part only of the soma, give hints of curious complications, and
suggest that in plants at least the interrelations between soma and
gamete may be far less simple than we have supposed. Nevertheless,
speaking generally, we see nothing to indicate that qualitative characters
descend, whether in plants or animals, according to systems which
are incapable of factorial representation.

The body of evidence accumulated by this method of analysis is
now very large, and is still growing fast by the labours of many workers.
Progress is also beginning along many novel and curious lines. The
details are too technical for inclusion here. Suffice it to say that not
only have we proof that segregation affects a vast range of characteris-
tics, but in the course of our analysis phenomena of most unexpected
kinds have been encountered. Some of these things twenty years ago
must have seemed inconceivable. For example, the two sets of sex
organs, male and female, of the same plant may not be carrying the
same characteristics ; in some animals characteristics, quite independent
of sex, may be distributed solely or predominantly to one sex; in
certain species the male may be breeding true to its own type, while
the female is permanently mongrel, throwing off eggs of a distinct
variety in addition to those of its own type; characteristics, essentially
independent, may be associated in special combinations which are
largely retained in the next generation, so that among the grand-
children there is numerical preponderance of those combinations which
existed in the grandparents—a discovery which introduces us to a new
phenomenon of polarity in the onganism.

We are accustomed to the fact that the fertilised egg has a polarity,
a front and hind end for example; but we have now to recognise that it,
or the primitive germinal cells formed from it, may have another
polarity shown in the groupings of the parental elements. Iam entirely
sceptical as to the occurrence of segregation solely in the maturation of
the germ-cells,* preferring at present to regard it as a special case of
that patchwork condition we see in so many plants. These mosaics
may break up, emitting bud-sports at various cell-divisions, and I
suspect that the great regularity seen in the F, ratios of the cereals, for
example, is a consequence of very late segregation, whereas the exces-
sive irregularity found in other cases may be taken to indicate that
segregation can happen at earlier stages of differentiation.

The paradoxical descent of colour-blindness and other sex-limited
conditions—formerly regarded as an inscrutable caprice of nature—has
been represented with approximate correctness, and we already know
something as to the way, or, perhaps, I should say ways, in which the

“The fact that in certain plants the male and female organs respectively
carry distinct factors may be quoted as almost decisively negativing the sug-
gestion that segregation is confined to the reduction division,

10 © PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

determination of sex is accomplished in some of the forms of life—
though, I hasten to add, we have no inkling as to any method by which
that determination may be influenced or directed. It is obvious that
such discoveries have bearings on most of the problems, whether
theoretical or practical, in which animals and plants are concerned.
Permanence or change of type, perfection of type, purity or mixture
of race, ‘ racial development,’ the succession of forms, from being vague
phrases expressing matters of degree, are now seen to be capable of
acquiring physiological meanings, already to some extent assigned with
precision. For the naturalist—and it is to him that I am especially
addressing myself to-day—these things are chiefly significant as relating
to the history of organic beings—the theory of Evolution, to use our
modern name. They have, as I shall endeavour to show in my second
address to be given in Sydney, an immediate reference to the conduct
of human society.

I suppose that everyone is familiar in outline with the theory of
the Origin of Species which Darwin promulgated. Through the last
fifty years this theme of the Natural Selection of favoured races has been
developed and expounded in writings innumerable. Favoured races
certainly can replace others. The argument is sound, but we are doubt-
ful of its value. For us that debate stands adjourned. We go to
Darwin for his incomparable collection of facts. We would fain
emulate his scholarship, his width and his power of exposition, but
to us he speaks no more with philosophical authority. We read his
scheme of Evolution as we would that of Lucretius or of Lamarck,
delighting in their simplicity and their courage. The practical and
experimental study of Variation and Heredity has not merely opened
a new field; it has given a new point of view and new standards of
criticism. Naturalists may still be found expounding teleological
systems’ which would have delighted Dr. Pangloss himself, but at
the present time few are misled. The student of genetics knows that

° TI take the following from the Abstract of a recent Croonian Lecture
‘On the Origin of Mammals’ delivered to the Royal Society :—‘In
Upper Triassic times the larger Cynodonts preyed upon the large
Anomodont, Kannemeyeria, and carried on their existence so long as these
Anomodonts survived, but died out with them about the end of the Trias or
in Rhetic times. The small Cynodonts, having neither small Anomodonts nor
small Cotylosaurs to feed on, were forced to hunt the very active long-limbed
Thecodonts. The greatly increased activity brought about that series of
changes which formed the mammals—the flexible skin with hair, the four-
chambered heart and warm blood, the loose jaw with teeth for mastication,
an increased development of tactile sensation and a great increase of cerebrum.
Not improbably the attacks of the newly evolved Cynodont or mammalian type
brought about a corresponding evolution in the Pseudosuchian Thecodonts, which
ultimately resulted in the formation of Dinosaurs and Birds.’ Broom, R.,
Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 87, p. 88.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 11

the time for the development of theory is not yet. He would rather
stick to the seed-pan and the incubator.

In face of what we now know of the distribution of variability in
nature the scope claimed for Natural Selection in determining the fixity
of Species must be greatly reduced. The doctrine of the survival of the
fittest is undeniable so long as it is applied to the organism as a whole,
but to attempt by this principle to find value in all definiteness of parts
and functions, and in the name of Science to see fitness everywhere
is mere eighteenth-century optimism. Yet it was in application to the
parts, to the details of specific difference, to the spots on the peacock’s
tail, to the colouring of an Orchid flower, and hosts of such examples,
that the potency of Natural Selection was urged with the strongest
emphasis. Shorn of these pretensions the doctrine of the survival of
favoured races is a truism, helping scarcely at all to account for the
diversity of species. Tolerance plays almost as considerable a part.
By these admissions almost the last shred of that teleological fustian
with which Victorian philosophy loved to clothe the theory of Evolu-
tion is destroyed. Those who would proclaim that whatever is is right
will be wise henceforth to base this faith frankly on the impregnable
rock of superstition, and to abstain from direct appeals to natural fact.

My predecessor said last year that in physics the age is one of rapid
progress and profound scepticism. In at least as high a degree this is
true of Biology, and as a chief characteristic of modern evolutionary .
thought we must confess also to a deep but irksome humility in
presence of great vital problems. Every theory of Hvolution must be
such as to accord with the facts of physics and chemistry, a primary
necessity to which our predecessors paid small heed. For them the
unknown was a rich mine of possibilities on which they could freely
draw. For us it is rather an impenetrable mountain out of which the
truth can be chipped in rare and isolated fragments. Of the physics and
chemistry of life we know next to nothing. Somehow the characters
of living things are bound up in properties of colloids, and are largely
determined by the chemical powers of enzymes, but the study of these
classes of matter has only fust begun. Living things are found by a
simple experiment to have powers undreamt of, and who knows what
may be behind?

Naturally we turn aside from generalities. It is no time to discuss
the origin of the Mollusca or of Dicotyledons, while we are not even
gure how it came to pass that Primula obconica has in twenty-five years
produced its abundant new forms almost under our eyes. Knowledge
of heredity has so reacted on our conceptions of variation that very
competent men are even denying that variation in the old sense is a
genuine occurrence at all. Variation is postulated as the basis of all
evolutionary change. Do we then as a matter of fact find in the world

12 PRESIDENT’S. ADDRESS.

about us variations occurring of such a kind as to warrant faith in a
contemporary progressive Evolution? ‘Till lately most of us would
have said ‘ yes’ without misgiving. We should have pointed, as
Darwin did, to the immense range of diversity seen in many wild
species, so commonly that the difficulty is to define the types them-
selves. Still more conclusive seemed the profusion of forms in the
various domesticated animals and plants, most of them incapable of
existing even for a generation in the wild state, and therefore fixed
unquestionably by human selection. These, at least, for certain, are
new forms, often distinct enough to pass for species, which has arisen
by variation. But when analysis is applied to this mass of variation
the matter wears a different aspect. Closely examined, what is the
“variability ’ of wild species? What is the natural fact which is
denoted by the statement that a given species exhibits much variation ?
Generally one of two things: either that the individuals collected in one
locality differ among themselves; or perhaps more often that samples
from separate localities differ from each other. As direct evidence of
variation it is clearly to the first of these phenomena that we must
have recourse—the heterogeneity of a population breeding together in
one area. This heterogeneity may be in any degree, ranging from
slight differences that systematists would disregard, to a complex
variability such as we find in some moths, where there is an abund-
ance of varieties so distinct that many would be classified as specific
forms but for the fact that all are freely breeding together. Naturalists
formerly supposed that any of these varieties might be bred from any
of the others. Just as the reader of novels is prepared to find that
any kind of parents may have any kind of children in the course of the
story, so was the evolutionist ready to believe that any pair of moths
might produce any of the varieties included in the species. Genetic
analysis has disposed of all these mistakes. We have no longer the
smallest doubt that in all these examples the varieties stand in a regular
descending order, and that they are simply terms in a series of com-
binations of factors separately transmitted, of which each may be
present or absent. t
The appearance of contemporary variability proves to be an illusion.
Variation from step to step in the series must occur either by the
addition or by the loss of a factor. Now, of the origin of new forms
‘ by loss there seems to me to be fairly clear evidence, but of the con-
temporary acquisition of any new factor I see no satisfactory proof,
though I admit there are rare examples which may be so interpreted.
We are left with a picture of variation utterly different from that
which we saw at first. Variation now stands out as a definite physio-
logical event. We have done with the notion that Darwin came latterly
to favour, that large differences can arise by accumulation of small

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13

differences. Such small differences are often mere ephemeral effects
of conditions of life, and as such are not transmissible; but even small
differences, when truly genetic, are factorial like the larger ones, and
there is not the slightest reason for supposing that they are capable
of summation. As to the origin or source of these positive separable
factors, we are without any indication or surmise. By their effects
we know them to be definite, as definite, say, as the organisms which
produce diseases; but how they arise and how they come to take part
in the composition of the living creature so that when present they are
treated in cell-division as constituents of the germs, we cannot con-
jecture.

It was a commonplace of evolutionary theory that at least the
domestic animals have been developed from a few wild types. Their
origin was supposed to present no difficulty. The various races of
fowl, for instance, all came from Gallus bankiva, the Indian jungle-
fowl. So we are taught; but try to reconstruct the steps in their
evolution and you realise your hopeless ignorance. To be sure there
are breeds, such as Black-red Game and Brown Leghorns, which have
the colours of the jungle-fowl, though they differ in shape and other
respects. As we know so little as yet of the genetics of shape, let us
assume that those transitions could be got over. Suppose, further, as
is probable, that the absence of the maternal instinct in the Leghorn
is due to loss of one factor which the jungle-fowl possesses. So far
we are on fairly safe ground. But how about White Leghorns? Their
origin may seem easy to imagine, since white varieties have often
arisen in well-authenticated cases. But the white of White Leghorns
is not, as white in nature often is, due to the loss of the colour-elements,
but to the action of something which inhibits their expression. Whence
did that something come? The same question may be asked respecting
the heavy breeds, such as Malays or Indian Game. Each of these is a
separate introduction from the East. To suppose that these, with their
peculiar combs and close feathering, could have been developed from
pre-existing European breeds is very difficult. On the other hand,
there is no wild species now living any more like them. We may, of
course, postulate that there was once such a species, now lost. That
is quite conceivable, though the suggestion is purely speculative. I
might thus go through the list of domesticated animals and plants of
ancient origin and again and again we should be driven to this
suggestion, that many of their distinctive characters must have been
derived from some wild original now lost. Indeed, to this unsatisfying
conclusion almost every careful writer on such subjects is now reduced.
If we turn to modern evidence the case looks even worse. The new
breeds of domestic animals made in recent times are the carefully
selected products of recombination of pre-existing breeds. Most of the

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

new varieties of cultivated plants are the outcome of deliberate crossing.
There is generally no doubt in the matter. We have pretty full
histories of these crosses in Gladiolus, Orchids, Cineraria, Begonia,
Calceolaria, Pelargonium, &. A very few certainly arise from a single
origin. The Sweet Pea is the clearest case, and there are others which
I should name with hesitation. The Cyclamen is one of them, but
we know that efforts to cross Cyclamens were made early in the cul-
tural history of the plant, and they may very well have been success-
ful. Several plants for which single origins are alleged, such as the
Chinese Primrose, the Dahlia, and Tobacco, came to us in an already
domesticated state, and their origins remain altogether mysterious.
Formerly single origins were generally presumed, but at the present
time numbers of the chief products of domestication, dogs, horses,
cattle, sheep, poultry, wheat, oats, rice, plums, cherries, have in turn
been accepted as ‘ polyphyletic,’ or, in other words, derived from several
distinct forms. The reason that has led to these judgments is that the
distinctions between the chief varieties can be traced as far back as the
evidence reaches, and that these distinctions are so great, so far tran-
scending anything that we actually know variation capable of effecting,
that it seems pleasanter to postpone the difficulty, relegating the critical
differentiation to some misty antiquity into which we shall not be asked
to penetrate. For it need scarcely be said that this is mere procrastina-
tion. If the origin of a form under domestication is hard to imagine, it
becomes no easier to conceive of such enormous deviations from type
coming to pass in the wild state. Examine any two thoroughly distinct
species which meet each other in their distribution, as, for instance,
Lychnis diurna and vespertina do. In areas of overlap are many inter-
mediate forms. ‘These used to be taken to be transitional steps, and
the specific distinctness of vespertina and diurna was on that account
questioned. Once it is known that these supposed intergrades are
merely mongrels between the two species the transition from one to the
other is practically beyond our powers of imagination to conceive. If
both these can survive, why has their common parent perished? Why
when they cross do they not reconstruct it instead of producing partially
sterile hybrids? I take this example to show how entirely the facts
were formerly misinterpreted.

When once the idea of a true-breeding—or, as we say, homozygous
—type is grasped, the problem of variation becomes an insistent oppres-
sion. What can make such a type vary? We know, of course, one
way by which novelty can be introduced—by crossing. Cross two
well-marked varieties—for instance, of Chinese Primula—each breeding
true, and in the second generation by mere recombination of the various
factors which the two parental types severally introduced, there will
be a profusion of forms, utterly unlike each other, distinct also from

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15

the original parents. Many of these can be bred true, and if found
wild would certainly be described as good species. Confronted by the
difficulty I have put before you, and contemplating such amazing poly-
morphism in the second generation from a cross in Antirrhinuwm, Lotsy
has lately with great courage suggested to us that all variation may be
due to such crossing. I do not disguise my sympathy with this effort.
After the blind complacency of conventional evolutionists it is refresh-
ing to meet so frank an acknowledgment of the hardness of the problem.
Lotsy’s utterance will at least do something to expose the artificiality of
systematic zoology and botany. Whatever might or might not be
revealed by experimental breeding, it is certain that without such tests
we are merely guessing when we profess to distinguish specific limits
and to declare that this is a species and that a variety. The only defin-
able unit in classification is the homozygous form which breeds true.
When we presume to say that such and such differences are trivial and
such others valid, we are commonly embarking on a course for which
there. is no physiological warrant. Who could have foreseen that the
Apple and the Pear—so like each other that their botanical differences
are evasive—could not be crossed together, though species of Antir-
rhinum so totally unlike each other as majus and molle can be
hybridized, as Baur has shown, without a sign of impaired fertility?
Jordan was perfectly right. The true-breeding forms which he dis-
tinguished in such multitudes are real entities, though the great
systematists, dispensing with such laborious analysis, have pooled them
into arbitrary Linnean species, for the convenience of collectors and for
the simplification of catalogues. Such pragmatical considerations may
mean much in the museum, but with them the student of the physio-
logy of variation has nothing to do. These ‘little species,’ finely cut,
true-breeding, and innumerable mongrels between them, are what he
finds when he examines any so-called variable type. On analysis the
semblance of variability disappears, and the illusion is shown to be due
to segregation and recombination of series of factors on pre-determined
lines. As soon as the ‘ little species ’ are separated out they are found
to be fixed. In face of such a result we may well ask with Lotsy,
is there such a thing as spontaneous variation anywhere? His answer
is that there is not.

Abandoning the attempt to show that positive factors can be added
to the original stock, we have further to confess that we cannot
often actually prove variation by loss of factor to be a real pheno-
menon. Lotsy doubts whether even this phenomenon occurs. The
sole source of variation, in his view, is crossing. But here I
think he is on unsafe ground. When a well-established variety like
‘Crimson King’ Primula, bred by Messrs. Sutton in thousands of
individuals, gives off, as it did a few years since, a salmon-coloured

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

variety, ‘Coral King,’ we might claim this as a genuine example of
variation by loss. The new variety is a simple recessive. It differs
from ‘ Crimson King’ only in one respect, the loss of a single colour-
factor, and, of course, bred true from its origin. To account for the
appearance of such a new form by any process of crossing is exceedingly
difficult. From the nature of the case there can have been no cross
since ‘ Crimson King’ was established, and hence the salmon must
have been concealed as a recessive from the first origin of that variety,
even when it was represented by very few individuals, probably only by
a single one. Surely, if any of these had been heterozygous for salmon
this recessive could hardly have failed to appear during the process of
self-fertilisation by which the stock would be multiplied, even though
that selfing may not have been strictly carried out. Examples like this
seem to me practically conclusive.* They can be challenged, but not,
I think, successfully. Then again in regard to those variations in
number and division of parts which we call meristic, the reference of
these to original cross-breeding is surely barred by the circumstances in
which they often occur. There remain also the rare examples men-
tioned already in which a single wild origin may with much confidence
be assumed. In spite of repeated trials, no one has yet succeeded in
crossing the Sweet Pea with any other leguminous species. We know
that early in its cultivated history it produced at least two marked
varieties which I can only conceive of as spontaneously arising, though,
no doubt, the profusion of forms we now have was made by the crossing
of those original varieties. I mention the Sweet Pea thus prominently
for another reason, that it introduces us to another though subsidiary
form of variation, which may be described as a fractionation of factors.
Some of my Mendelian colleagues have spoken of genetic factors as
permanent and indestructible. Relative permanence in a sense they
have, for they commonly come out unchanged after segregation. But
I am satisfied that they may occasionally undergo a quantitative dis:
integration, with the consequence that varieties are produced inter-
mediate between the integral varieties from which they were derived.
These disintegrated conditions I have spoken of as subtraction—or
reduction—stages. For example, the Picotee Sweet Pea, with its
purple edges, can surely be nothing but a condition produced by the
factor which ordinarily makes the fully purple flower, quantitatively
diminished. The pied animal, suchas the Dutch rabbit, must similarly
be regarded as the result of partial defect of the chromogen from which
the pigment is formed, or conceivably of the factor which effects its
oxidation. On such lines I think we may with great confidence

* The numerous and most interesting ‘mutations’ recorded by Professor
T. H. Morgan and his colleagues in the fly, Drosophila, may also be cited as
unexceptionable cases.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17

interpret all those intergrading forms which breed true and are not
produced by factorial interference.

It is to be inferred that these fractional degradations are the con-
sequence of irregularities in segregation. We constantly see irregulari-
ties in the ordinary meristic processes, and in the distribution of somatic
differentiation. We are familiar with half segments, with imperfect
twinning, with leaves partially petaloid, with petals partially sepaloid.
All these are evidences of departures from the normal regularity in the
rhythms of repetition, or in those waves of differentiation by which the
qualities are sorted out among the parts of the body. Similarly, when
in segregation the qualities are sorted out among the germ-cells in
certain critical cell-divisions, we cannot expect these differentiating
divisions to be exempt from the imperfections and irregularities which
are found in all the grosser divisions that we can observe. If I am
right, we shall find evidence of these irregularities in the association
of unconformable numbers with the appearance of the novelties which
I have called fractional. In passing let us note how the history of the
Sweet Pea belies those ideas of a continuous evolution with which we
had formerly to contend. ‘The big varieties came first. The little ones
have arisen later, as I suggest by fractionation. Presented with a
collection of modern Sweet Peas how prettily would the devotees of
Continuity have arranged them in a graduated series, showing how
every intergrade could be found, passing from the full colour of the
wild Sicilian species in one direction to white, in the other to the
deep purple of ‘ Black Prince,’ though happily we know these two to be
among the earliest to have appeared.

Having in view these and other considerations which might be
developed, I feel no reasonable doubt that though we may have to
forgo a claim to variations by addition of factors, yet variation both by
loss of factors and by fractionation of factors is a genuine phenomenon
of contemporary nature. If then we have to dispense, as seems likely,
with any addition from without we must begin seriously to consider
whether the course of Evolution can at all reasonably be represented as
an unpacking of an original complex which contained within itself the
whole range of diversity which living things present. I do not suggest
that we should come to a judgment as to what is or is not probable in
these respects. As I have said already, this is no time for devising
theories of Evolution, and I propound none. But as we have got to
recognise that there has been an Evolution, that somehow or other the
forms of life have arisen from fewer forms, we may as well see whether
we are limited to the old view that evolutionary progress is from the
simple to the complex, and whether after all it is conceivable that the
process was the other way about. When the facts of genetic discovery
become familiarly known to biologists, and cease to be the preoccupa-

1914, Cc

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

tion of a few, as they still are, many and long discussions must
inevitably arise on the question, and I offer these remarks to pre-
pare the ground. I ask you simply to open your minds to this
possibility. It involves a certain effort. | We have to reverse our
habitual modes of thought. At first it may seem rank absurdity to
suppose that the primordial form or forms of protoplasm could have
contained complexity enough to produce the divers types of life. But
is it easier to imagine that these powers could have been conveyed by
extrinsic additions ? Of what nature could these additions be? Additions
of material cannot surely be in question. We are told that salts of
iron in the soil may turn a pink hydrangea blue. The iron cannot be
passed on to the next generation. How can the iron multiply itself?
The power to assimilate the iron is all that can be transmitted. A
disease-producing organism like the pebrine of silkworms can in a very
few cases be passed on through the germ-cells. Such an organism can
multiply and can produce its characteristic effects in the next genera-
tion. But it does not become part of the invaded host, and we cannot
conceive it taking part in the geometrically ordered processes of segre-
gation. These illustrations may seem too gross; but what refinement
will meet the requirements of the problem, that the thing introduced
must be, as the living organism itself is, capable of multiplication and
of subordinating itself in a definite system of segregation? That which
is conferred in variation must rather itself be a change, not of material,
but of arrangement, or of motion. The invocation of additions extrinsic
to the organism does not seriously help us to imagine how the power to
change can be conferred, and if it prove that hope in that direction
must be abandoned, I think we lose very little. By the re-arrangement
of a very moderate number of things we soon reach a number of possi-
bilities practically infinite.

That primordial life may have been of small dimensions need not
disturb us. Quantity is of no account in these considerations.
Shakespeare once existed as a speck of protoplasm not so big as a
small pin’s head. To this nothing was added that would not equally
well have served to build up a baboon or a rat. Let us consider how far
we can get by the process of removal of what we call ‘epistatic ’ factors,
in other words those that control, mask, or suppress underlying powers
and faculties. I have spoken of the vast range of colours exhibited by
modern Sweet Peas. There is no question that these have been derived
from the one wild bi-colour form by a process of successife removals.
When the vast range of form, size, and flavour to be found among the
cultivated apples is considered it seems difficult to suppose that all this
variety is hidden in the wild crab-apple. I cannot positively assert that
this is so, but I think all familiar with Mendelian analysis would agree
with me that it is probable, and that the wild crab contains presumably

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

inhibiting elements which the cultivated kinds have lost. The legend
that the seedlings of cultivated apples become crabs is often repeated.
After many inquiries among the raisers of apple seedlings I have never
found an authentic case—once only even an alleged case, and this
on inquiry proved to be unfounded. I have confidence that the artistic
gifts of mankind will prove to be due not to something added to the
make-up of an-ordinary man, but to the absence of factors which in the
normal person inhibit the development of these gifts. They are almost
beyond doubt to be looked upon as releases of powers normally sup-
pressed. The instrument is there, but it is ‘stopped down.’ The
scents of flowers or fruits, the finely repeated divisions that give its
quality to the wool of the Merino, or in an analogous case the multi-
plicity of quills to the tail of the fantail pigeon, are in all probability
other examples of such releases. You may ask what guides us in the
discrimination of the positive factors and how we can satisfy ourselves
that the appearance of a quality is due to loss. It must be conceded
that in these determinations we have as yet recourse only to the effects
of dominance. When the tall pea is crossed with the dwarf, since the
offspring is tall we say that the tall parent passed a factor into the
cross-bred which makes it tall. The pure tall parent had two doses of
this factor ; the dwarf had none; and since the cross-bred is tall we say
that one dose of the dominant tallness is enough to give the full height.
The reasoning seems unanswerable. But the commoner result of cross-
ing is the production of a form intermediate between the two pure
parental types. In such examples we see clearly enough that the full
parental characteristics can only appear when they are homozygous—
formed from similar germ-cells, and that one dose is insufficient to
produce either effect fully. When this is so we can never be sure
which side is positive and which negative. Since, then, when dominance
is incomplete we find ourselves in this difficulty, we perceive that the
amount of the effect is our only criterion in distinguishing the positive
from the negative, and when we return even to the example of the
tall and dwarf peas the matter is not so certain as it seemed. Professor
Cockerell lately found among thousands of yellow sunflowers one
which was partly rel. By breeding he raised from this a form wholly
red. Hvidently the yellow and the wholly red are the pure forms, and
the partially red is che heterozygote. We may then say that the yellow
is YY with two doses of a positive factor which inhibits the development
of pigment; the red is yy, with no dose of the inhibitor; and the
partially red are Yy, with only one dose of it. But we might be tempted
to think the red was a positive characteristic, and invert the expressions,
representing the red as RR, the partly red as Rr, and the yellow as
rr. According as we adopt the one or the other system of expression
we shall interpret the evolutionary change as one of loss or as one of

c 2

20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

addition. May we not interpret the other apparent new dominants in
the same way? The white dominant in the fowl or in the Chinese
Primula can inhibit colour. But may it not be that the original coloured
fowl or Primula had two doses of a factor which inhibited this inhibitor ?
The Pepper Moth, Amphidasys betularia, produced in England about
1840 a black variety, then a novelty, now common in certain areas,
which behaves as a full dominant. The pure blacks are no blacker
than the cross-bred. Though at first sight it seems that the black
must have been something added, we can without absurdity suggest
that the normal is the term in which two doses of inhibitor are present,
and that in the absence of one of them the black appears.

In spite of seeming perversity, therefore, we have to admit that
there is no evolutionary change which in the present state of our know-
ledge we can positively declare to be not due to loss. When this has
been conceded it is natural to ask whether the removal of inhibiting
factors may not be invoked in alleviation of the necessity which has
driven students of the domestic breeds to refer their diversities to
multiple origins. | Something, no doubt, is to be hoped for in that
direction, but not until much better and more extensive knowledge of
what variation by loss may effect in the living body can we have any real
assurance that this difficulty has been obviated. We should be greatly
helped by some indication as to whether the origin of life has been single
or multiple. Modern opinion is, perhaps, inclining to the multiple
theory, but we have no real evidence. Indeed, the problem still stands
outside the range of scientific investigation, and when we hear the
spontaneous formation of formaldehyde mentioned as a possible first
step in the origin of life, we think of Harry Lauder in the character of
a Glasgow schoolboy pulling out his treasures from his pocket—‘ That’s
a wassher—for makkin’ motor cars *!

As the evidence stands at present all that can be safely added in
amplification of the evolutionary creed may be summed up in the
statement that variation occurs as a definite event often producing a
sensibly discontinuous result; that the succession of varieties comes
to pass by the elevation and establishment of sporadic groups of
individuals owing their origin to such isolated events; and that
the change which we see as a nascent variation is often, perhaps
always, one of loss. Modern research lends not the smallest encourage-
ment or sanction to the view that gradual evolution occurs by the trans-
formation of masses of individuals, though that fancy has fixed itself on
popular imagination. The isolated events to which variation is due are
evidently changes in the germinal tissues, probably in the manner in
which they divide. It is likely that the occurrence of these variations
is wholly irregular, and as to their causation we are absolutely without
surmise or even plausible speculation. Distinct types once arisen, no

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. PAI

doubt a profusion of the forms called species have been derived from
them by simple crossing and subsequent recombination. New species
may be now in course of creation by this means, but the limits of the
process are obviously narrow. On the other hand, we see no changes in
progress around us in the contemporary world which we can imagine
likely to culminate in the evolution of forms distinct in the larger sense.
By intercrossing dogs, jackals, and wolves new forms of these types
can be made, some of which may be species, but I see no reason to
think that from such material a fox could be bred in indefinite time, or
that dogs could be bred from foxes.

Whether Science will hereafter discover that certain groups can by
peculiarities in their genetic physiology be declared to have a preroga-
tive quality justifying their recognition as species in the old sense, and
that the differences of others are of such a subordinate degree that they
may in contrast be termed varieties, further genetic research alone can
show. I myself anticipate that such a discovery will be made, but I
cannot defend the opinion with positive conviction.

Somewhat reluctantly, and rather from a sense of duty, I have
devoted most of this Address to the evolutionary aspects of genetic
research. We cannot keep these things out of our heads, though some-
times we wish we could. The outcome, as you will have seen, is
negative, destroying much that till lately passed for gospel. Destruc-
tion may be useful, but it is a low kind of work. We are just about
where Boyle was in the seventeenth century. We can dispose of
Alchemy, but we cannot make more than a quasi-chemistry. We are
awaiting our Priestley and our Mendeléeff. In truth it is not these
wider aspects of genetics that are at present our chief concern. They
will come in their time. The great advances of science are made like
those of evolution, not by imperceptible mass-improvement, but by the
sporadic birth of penetrative genius. The journeymen follow after him,
widening and clearing up, as we are doing along the track that Mendel
found.

Parr II.—SYDNEY.’

Av Melbourne I spoke of the new knowledge of the properties of
living things which Mendelian analysis has brought us. I indicated
how these discoveries are affecting our outlook on that old problem
of natural history, the origin and nature of Species, and the chief
conclusion I drew was the negative one, that, though we must hold
to our faith in the Evolution of Species, there is little evidence as to
how it has come about, and no clear proof that the process is con-
tinuing in any considerable degree at the present time. The thought

* Delivered in Sydney on Thursday, August 20, 1914.

22, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

uppermost in our minds is that knowledge of the nature of life is
altogether too slender to warrant speculation on these fundamental
subjects. Did we presume to offer such speculations they would
have no more value than those which alchemists might have made as
to the nature of the elements. But though in regard to these
theoretical aspects we must confess to such deep ignorance, enough has
been learnt of the general course of heredity within a single species to
justify many practical conclusions which cannot in the main be shaken.
I propose now to develop some of these conclusions in regard to our
own species, Man.

In my former Address I mentioned the condition of certain animals
and plants which are what we call ‘ polymorphic.’ Their populations
consist of individuals of many types, though they breed freely together
with perfect fertility. In cases of this kind which have been suffi-
ciently investigated it has been found that these distinctions—some-
times very great and affecting most diverse features of organisatioun—
are due to the presence or absence of elements, or factors as we call
them, which are treated in heredity as separate entities. | These
factors and their combinations produce the characteristics which we
perceive. No individual can acquire a particular characteristic unless
the requisite factors entered into the composition of that individual
at fertilisation, being received either from the father or from the
mother or from both, and consequently no individual can pass on to
his offspring positive characters which he does not himself possess.
Rules of this kind have already been traced in operation in the human
species; and though I admit that an assumption of some magnitude
is involved when we extend the application of the same system to
human characteristics in general, yet the assumption is one which
I believe we are fully justified in making. With little hesitation we
can now declare that the potentialities and aptitudes, physical as well
as mental, sex, colours, powers of work or invention, liability to
diseases, possible duration of life, and the other features by which the
members of a mixed population differ from each other, are determined
from the moment of fertilisation; and by all that we know of heredity
in the forms of life with which we can experiment we are compelled
to believe that these qualities are in the main distributed on a factorial
system. By changes in the outward conditions of life the expression
of some of these powers and features may be excited or restrained.
For the development of some an external opportunity is needed, and
if that be withheld the character is never seen, any more than if the
body be starved can the full height be attained; but such influences
are superficial and do not alter the genetic constitution.

The factors which the individual receives from his parents and no
others are those which he can transmit to his offspring; and if a factor

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23

was received from one parent only, not more than half the offspring, ©
on an average, will inherit it. What is it that has so long prevented
mankind from discovering such simple facts? Primarily the circum-
stance that as man must have two parents it is not possible quite
easily to detect the contributions of each. The individual body is a
double structure, whereas the germ-cells are single. Two germ-cells
unite to produce each individual body, and the ingredients they respec-
tively contribute interact in ways that leave the ultimate product a
medley in which it is difficult to identify the several ingredients. When,
however, their effects are conspicuous the task is by no means impos-
sible. In part also even physiologists have been blinded by the survival
of ancient and obscurantist conceptions of the nature of man by which
they were discouraged from the application of any rigorous analysis.
Medical literature still abounds with traces of these archaisms, and,
indeed, it is only quite recently that prominent horse-breeders have
come to see that the dam matters as much as the sire. For them,
though vast pecuniary considerations were involved, the old ‘ homun-
culus’ theory was good enough. We were amazed at the notions
of genetic physiology which Professor Baldwin Spencer encountered
in his wonderful researches among the natives of Central Australia;
but in truth, if we reflect that these problems have engaged the atten-
tion of civilised man for ages, the fact that he, with all his powers
of recording and deduction, failed to discover any part of the Mendelian
system is almost as amazing. The popular notion that any parents
can have any kind of children within the racial limits is contrary to
all experience, yet we have gravely entertained such ideas. As I have
said elsewhere, the truth might have been found out at any period
in the world’s history if only pedigrees had been drawn the right
way up. If, instead of exhibiting the successive pairs of progenitors
who have contributed to the making of an ultimate individual, some
one had had the idea of setting out the posterity of a single ancestor
who possessed a marked feature such as the Habsburg lip, and showing
the transmission of this feature along some of the descending branches
and the permanent loss of the feature in collaterals, the essential
truth that heredity can be expressed in terms of presence and absence
must have at once become apparent. For the descendant is not, as he
appears in the conventional pedigree, a sort of pool into which each
tributary ancestral stream has poured something, but rather a con-
glomerate of ingredient-characters taken from his progenitors in such
a way that some ingredients are represented and others are omitted.

_ Let me not, however, give the impression that the unravelling of
such descents is easy. Even with fairly full details, which in the case
of man are very rarely to be had, many complications occur, often
preventing us from obtaining more than a rough general indication of

24 % PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

the system of descent. The nature of these complications we partly
understand from our experience of animals and plants which are
amenable to breeding under careful restrictions, and we know that
they are mostly referable to various effects of interaction between
factors by which the presence of some is masked.

Necessarily the clearest evidence of regularity in the inheritance
of human characteristics has been obtained in regard to the descent
of marked abnormalities of structure and congenital diseases. Of the
descent of ordinary distinctions such as are met with in the normal
healthy population we know little for certain. Hurst's evidence, that
two parents both with light-coloured eyes—in the strict sense, meaning
that no pigment is present on the front of the iris—do not have dark-
eyed children, still stands almost alone in this respect. With regard
to the inheritance of other colour-characteristics some advance has been
made, but everything points to the inference that the genetics of colour
and many other features in man will prove exceptionally complex.
There are, however, plenty of indications of system comparable with
those which we trace in various animals and plants, and we are assured
that to extend and clarify such evidence is only a matter of careful
analysis. For the present, in asserting almost any general rules for
human descent, we do right to make large reservations for possible
exceptions. It is tantalising to have to wait, but of the ultimate result
there can be no doubt.

I spoke of complications. Two of these are worth illustrating here,
for probably both of them play a great part in human genetics. It
was discovered by Nilsson-Ehle, in the course of experiments with
certain wheats, that several factors having the same power may co-exist
in the same individual. These cumulative factors do not necessarily
produce a cumulative effect, for any one of them may suffice to give
the full result. Just as the pure-bred tall pea with its two factors for
tallness is no taller than the cross-bred with a single factor, so these
wheats with three pairs of factors for red colour are no redder than the
ordinary reds of the same family. Similar observations have been
made by East and others. In some cases, as in the Primulas studied
by Gregory, the effect is cumulative. These results have been used
with plausibility by Davenport and the American workers to elucidate
the curious case of the mulatto. If the descent of colour in the cross
between the negro and the white man followed the simplest rule, the
offspring of two first-cross mulattos would be, on an average, one
black: two mulattos: one white, but this is notoriously not so.
Evidence of some segregation is fairly clear, and the deficiency of real
whites may perhaps be accounted for on the hypothesis of cumulative
factors, though by the nature of the case strict proof is not to be had.
But at present I own to a preference for regarding such examples as

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 2D

instances of imperfect segregation. The series of germ-cells produced
by the cross-bred consists of some with no black, some with full black,
and others with intermediate quantities of black. No statistical tests
of the condition of the gametes in such cases exist, and it is likely that
by choosing suitable crosses all sorts of conditions may be found,
ranging from the simplest case of total segregation, in which there are
only two forms of gametes, up to those in which there are all inter-
mediates in various proportions. This at least is what general experi-
ence of hybrid products leads me to anticipate. Segregation is
somehow effected by the rhythms of cell-division, if such an expression
may be permitted. In some cases the whole factor is so easily separated
that it is swept out at once; in others it is so intermixed that gametes of
all degrees of purity may result. That is admittedly a crude metaphor,
but as yet we cannot substitute a better. Be all this as it may, there are
many signs that in human heredity phenomena of this kind are common,
whether they indicate a multiplicity of cumulative factors or imper-
fections in segregation. Such phenomena, however, in no way detract
from the essential truths that segregation occurs, and that the organism
cannot pass on a factor which it has not itself received.

In human heredity we have found some examples, and I believe
that we shall find many more, in which the descent of factors is limited
by sex. The classical instances are those of colour-blindness and
hemophilia. Both these conditions occur with much greater frequency
in males than in females. Of colour-blindness at least we know that
the sons of the colour-blind man do not inherit it (unless the mother
is a transmitter) and do not transmit it to their children of either
sex. Some, probably all, of the daughters of the colour-blind father
inherit the character, and though not themselves colour-blind, they
transmit it to some (probably, on an average, half) of their offspring
of both sexes. For since these normal-sighted women have only
received the colour-blindness from one side of their parentage, only
half their offspring, on an average, can inherit it. The sons who
inherit the colour-blindness will be colour-blind, and the inheriting
daughters become themselves again transmitters. Males with
normal colour-vision, whatever their own parentage, do not have colour-
blind descendants, unless they marry transmitting women. There
are points still doubtful in the interpretation, but the critical fact is
clear, that the germ-cells of the colour-blind man are of two kinds:
(i) those which do not carry on the affection and are destined to take
part in the formation of sons; and (ii) those which do carry on the
colour-blindness and are destined to form daughters. There is evidence
that the ova also are similarly predestined to form one or other of the
sexes, but to discuss the whole question of sex-determination is beyond
my present scope. The descent of these sex-limited affections never-

26 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

theless calls for mention here, because it is an admirable illustration of
factorial predestination. It moreover exemplifies that parental polarity
of the zygote to which I alluded in my first Address, a phenomenon
which we suspect to be at the bottom of various anomalies of heredity,
and suggests that there may be truth in the popular notion that in
some respects sons resemble their mothers and daughters their fathers.

As to the descent of hereditary diseases and malformations, however,
we have abundant data for deciding that many are transmitted as
dominants and a few as recessives. The most remarkable collection
of these data is to be found in family histories of diseases of the eye.
Neurology and dermatology have also contributed many very instructive
pedigrees. In great measure the ophthalmological material was
collected by Edward Nettleship, for whose death we so lately grieved.
After retiring from practice as an oculist he devoted several years to
this most laborious task. He was not content with hearsay evidence,
but travelled incessantly, personally examining all accessible members
of the families concerned, working in such a way that his pedigrees
are models of orderly observation and recording. His zeal stimulated
many younger men to take part in the work, and it will now go on,
with the result that the systems of descent of all the common hereditary
diseases of the eye will soon be known with approximate accuracy.

Give a little imagination to considering the chief deduction from
this work. Technical details apart, and granting that we cannot
wholly interpret the numerical results, sometimes noticeably more and
sometimes fewer descendants of these patients being affected than
Mendelian formule would indicate, the expectation is that in the case
of many diseases of the eye a large proportion of the children, grand-
children, and remoter descendants of the patients will be affected with
the disease. Sometimes it is only defective sight that is transmitted ;
in other cases it is blindness, either from birth or coming on at some
later age. The most striking example perhaps is that of a form of
night-blindness still prevalent in a district near Montpellier, which
has affected at least 130 persons, all descending from a single affected
individual * who came into the country in the seventeenth century.
The transmission is in every case through an affected parent, and no
normal has been known to pass on the condition. Such an example
well serves to illustrate the fixity of the rules of descent. Similar
instances might be recited relating to a great variety of other conditions,
some trivial, others grave.

* The first human descent proved to follow Mendelian rules was that of a
serious malformation of the hand studied by Farabee in America. Drinkwater
subsequently worked out pedigrees for the same malformation in England. After
many attempts, he now tells me that he has succeeded in proving that the
American family and one of his own had an abnormal ancestor in common, five
generations ago.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 27

At various times it has been declared that men are born equal, and
that the inequality is brought abent by unequal opportunities.
Acquaintance with the pedigrees of disease soon shows the fatuity of
such fancies. The same conclusion, we may be sure, would result
from the true representation of the descent of any human faculty.
Neyer since Galton’s publications can the matter have been in any
doubt. At the time he began to study family histories even the broad
significance of heredity was frequently denied, and resemblances to
parents or ancestors were looked on as interesting curiosities.
Inveighing against hereditary political institutions, Tom Paine remarks
that the idea is as absurd as that of an ‘ hereditary wise man,’ or an
‘ hereditary mathematician,’ and to this day I suppose many people are
not aware that he is saying anything more than commonly foolish.
We, on the contrary, would feel it something of a puzzle if two parents,
both mathematically gifted, had any children not mathematicians.
Galton first demonstrated the overwhelming importance of these con-
siderations, and had he not been misled, partly by the theory of
pangenesis, but more by his mathematical instincts and training, which
prompted him to apply statistical treatment rather than qualitative
analysis, he might, not improbably, have discovered the essential facts
of Mendelism.

It happens rarely that science has anything to offer to the common
stock of ideas at once so comprehensive and so simple that the courses
of our thoughts are changed. Contributions to the material progress
of mankind are comparatively frequent. They result at once in
application. ‘Transit is quickened ; communication is made easier; the
food-supply is increased and population multiplied. By direct applica-
tion to the breeding of animals and plants such results must even
flow from Mendel’s work. But I imagine the greatest practical change
likely to ensue from modern genetic discovery will be a quickening of
interest in the true nature of man and in the biology of races. I have
spoken cautiously as to the evidence for the operation of any simple
Mendelian system in the descent of human faculty; yet the certainty
that systems which differ from the simpler schemes only in degree of
complexity are at work in the distribution of characters among the
human population cannot fail to influence our conceptions of life and
of ethics, leading perhaps ultimately to modification of social usage.
That change cannot but be in the main one of simplification. The
eighteenth century made great pretence of a return to nature, but it
did not occur to those philosophers first to inquire what nature is;
and perhaps not even the patristic writings contain fantasies much
further from physiological truth than those which the rationalists of
the ‘ Encyclopedia ’ adopted as the basis of their social schemes. For
men are so far from being born equal or similar that to the naturalist

28 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

they stand as the very type of a polymorphic species. Even most of
our local races consist of many distinct strains and individual types.
From the population of any ordinary English town as many distinct
human breeds could in a few generations be isolated as there are now
breeds of dogs, and indeed such a population in its present state is
much what the dogs of Kurope would be in ten years’ time but for the
interference of the fanciers. ven as at present constituted, owing
to the isolating effects of instinct, fashion, occupation, and social class,
many incipient strains already exist.

In one respect civilised man differs from all other species of animal
or plant in that, having prodigious and ever-increasing power over
nature, he invokes these powers for the preservation and maintenance
of many of the inferior and all the defective members of his species.
The inferior freely multiply, and the defective, if their defects be not
so grave as to lead to their detention in prisons or asylums, multiply
also without restraint. Heredity being strict in its action, the conse-
quences are in civilised countries much what they would be in the
kennels of the dog-breeder who continued to preserve all his puppies,
good and bad: the proportion of defectives increases. The increase is
so considerable that outside every great city there is a smaller town
inhabited by defectives and those who wait on them. Round London
we have a ring of such towns with some 30,000 inhabitants, of whom
about 28,000 are defective, largely, though of course by no means
entirely, bred from previous generations of defectives. Now, it is not
for us to consider practical measures. As men of science we observe
natural events and deduce conclusions from them. I may perhaps be
allowed to say that the remedies proposed in America, in so far as they
aim at the eugenic regulation of marriage on a comprehensive scale,
strike me as devised without regard to the needs either of individuals
or of a modern State. Undoubtedly if they decide to breed their
population of one uniform puritan grey, they can do it in a few
generations; but I doubt if timid respectability will make a nation
happy, and I am sure that qualities of a different sort are needed if it
is to compete with more vigorous and more varied communities.
Everyone must have a preliminary sympathy with the aims of eugenists
both abroad and at home. Their efforts at the least are doing some-
thing to discover and spread truth as to the physiological structure of
society. The spirit of such organisations, however, almost of
necessity suffers from a bias towards the accepted and the ordinary,
and if they had power it would go hard with many ingredients of
Society that could be ill-spared. I notice an ominous passage in which
even Galton, the founder of eugenics, feeling perhaps some twinge of
his Quaker ancestry, remarks that ‘ as the Bohemianism in the nature
of our race is destined to perish, the sooner it goes, the happier for

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 29

mankind.’ It is notthe eugenists who will give us what Plato has called
divine releases from the common ways. If some fancier with the
eatholicity of Shakespeare would take us in hand, well and good; but
I would not trust even Shakespeares meeting as a committee. Let us
remember that Beethoven’s father was an habitual drunkard and that
his mother died of consumption. From the genealogy of the patriarchs
also we learn—what may very well be the truth—that the fathers of
such as dwell in tents, and of all such as handle the harp or organ,
and the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron—the founders,
that is to say, of the arts and the sciences—came in direct descent
from Cain, and not in the posterity of the irreproachable Seth, who
is to us, as he probably was also in the narrow circle of his own
contemporaries, what naturalists call a nomen nudum.

Genetic research will make it possible for a nation to elect by what
sort of beings it will be represented not very many generations hence,
much as a farmer can decide whether his byres shall be full of short-
horns or Herefords. It will be very surprising indeed if some nation
does not make trial of this new power. They may make awful mis-
takes, but I think they will try.

Whether we like it or not, extraordinary and far-reaching changes in
public opinion are coming to pass. Man is just beginning to know
himself for what he is—a rather long-lived animal, with great powers
of enjoyment if he does not deliberately forgo them. Hitherto
superstition and mythical ideas of sin have predominantly controlled
these powers. Mysticism will not die out: for those strange fancies
knowledge is no cure; but their forms may change, and mysticism as
a force for the suppression of joy is happily losing its hold on the
modern world. As in the decay of earlier religions Ushabti dolls
were substituted for human victims, so telepathy, necromancy, and
other harmless toys take the place of eschatology and the inculcation
of a ferocious moral code. Among the civilised races of Kurope we
are witnessing an emancipation from traditional control in thought, in
art, and in conduct which is likely to have prolonged and wonderful
influences. Returning to freer or, if you will, simpler conceptions of
life and death, the coming generations are determined to get more out
of this world than their forefathers did. Is it then to be supposed
that when science puts into their hand means for the alleviation of
suffering immeasurable, and for making this world a happier place,
that they will demur to using those powers? The intenser struggle
between communities is only now beginning, and with the approach-
ing exhaustion of that capital of energy stored in the earth before man
began it must soon become still more fierce. In England some of our
great-grandchildren will see the end of the easily accessible coal, and,
failing some miraculous discovery of available energy, a wholesale

30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

reduction in population. There are races who have shown themselves
able at a word to throw off all tradition and take into their service
every power that science has yet offered them. Can we expect that
they, when they see how to rid themselves of the ever-increasing
weight of a defective population, will hesitate? The time cannot be
far distant when both individuals and communities will begin to
think in terms of biological fact, and it behoves those who lead
scientific thought carefully to consider whither action should lead.
At present I ask you merely to observe the facts. The powers of
science to preserve the defective are now enormous. Every year
these powers increase. This course of action must reach a limit.
To the deliberate intervention of civilisation for the preservation of in-
ferior strains there must sooner or later come an end, and before long
nations will realise the responsibility they have assumed in multiplying
these ‘ cankers of a calm world and a long peace.’

The definitely feeble-minded we may with propriety restrain, as
we are beginning to do even in England, and we may safely prevent
unions in which both parties are defective, for the evidence shows
that as a rule such marriages, though often prolific, commonly produce
no normal children at all. The union of such social vermin we should
no more permit than we would allow parasites to breed on our own
bodies. Further than that in restraint of marriage we ought not to
go, at least not yet. Something too may be done by a reform of
medical ethics. Medical students are taught that it is their duty to
prolong life at whatever cost in suffering. This may have been right
when diagnosis was uncertain and interference usually of small effect;
but deliberately to interfere now for the preservation of an infant so
gravely diseased that it can never be happy or come to any good is
very like wanton cruelty. In private few men defend such inter-
ference. Most who haye seen these cases lingering on agree that
the system is deplorable, but ask where can any line be drawn. The
biologist would reply that in all ages such decisions have been made by
civilised communities with fair success both in regard to crime and
in the closely analogous case of lunacy. The real reason why these
things are done is because the world collectively cherishes occult
views of the nature of life, because the facts are realised by few, and
because between the legal mind—to which society has become accus-
tomed to defer—and the seeing eye, there is such physiological
antithesis that hardly can they be combined in the same body. So
soon as scientific knowledge becomes common property, views more
reasonable and, I may add, more humane, are likely to prevail.

To all these great biological problems that modern society must
sooner or later face there are many aspects besides the obvious ones.
Infant mortality we are asked to lament without the slightest thought

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 31

of what the world would be like if the majority of these infants
were to survive. The decline in the birth-rate in countries already
over-populated is often deplored, and we are told that a nation in
which population is not rapidly increasing must be in a decline. The
slightest acquaintance with biology, or even school-boy natural history,
shows that this inference may be entirely wrong, and that before such
a question can be decided in one way or the other, hosts of considera-
tions must be taken into account. In normal stable conditions
population is stationary. The laity never appreciates, what is so clear
to a biologist, that the last century and a quarter, corresponding with
the great rise in population, has been an altogether exceptional period:
To our species this period has been what its early years in Australia
were to the rabbit. The exploitation of energy-capital of the earth in
coal, development of the new countries, and the consequent pouring
of food into Europe, the application of antiseptics, these are the things
that have enabled the human population to increase. I do not doubt
that if population were more evenly spread over the earth it might
increase very much more; but the essential fact is that under any
stable conditions a limit must be reached. A pair of wrens will bring
off a dozen young every year, but each year you will find the same
number of pears in your garden. In England the limit beyond which
under present conditions of distribution increase of population is a
source of suffering rather than of happiness has been reached already.
Younger communities living in territories largely vacant are very
probably right in desiring and encouraging more population. Increase
may, for some temporary reason, be essential to their prosperity. But
those who live, as I do, among thousands of creatures in a state of
semi-starvation will realise that too few is better than too many, and
will acknowledge the wisdom of Ecclesiasticus who said ‘ Desire not a
multitude of unprofitable children.’

But at least it is often urged that the decline in the birth-rate of
the intelligent and successful sections of the population—I am speaking
of the older communities—is to be regretted. Even this cannot be
granted without qualification. As the biologist knows, differentiation
is indispensable to progress. If population were homogeneous civilisa-
tion would stop. In every army the officers must be comparatively
few. Consequently, if the upper strata of the community produce
more children than will recruit their numbers some must fall into the
lower strata and increase the pressure there. Statisticians tell us that
an average of four children under present conditions is sufficient to
keep the number constant, and as the expectation of life is steadily
improving we may perhaps contemplate some diminution of that number
without alarm.

32 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

In the study of history biological treatment is only beginning to be
applied. For us the causes of the success and failure of races are
physiological events, and the progress of man has depended upon a
chain of these events, like those which have resulted in the ‘ improve-
ment’ of the domesticated animals and plants. It is obvious, for
example, that had the cereals never been domesticated cities could
scarcely have existed. But we may go further, and say that in tem-
perate countries of the Old World (having neither rice nor maize)
populations concentrated in large cities have been made possible by
the appearance of a ‘ thrashable’ wheat. The ears of the wild wheats
break easily to pieces, and the grain remains in the thick husk. Such
wheat can be used for food, but not readily. Ages before written
history began, in some unknown place, plants, or more likely a plant,
of wheat lost the dominant factor to which this brittleness is due, and
the recessive, thrashable wheat resulted. Some man noticed this
wonderful novelty, and it has been disseminated over the earth. The ori-
ginal variation may well have occurred once only, in a single germ-cell.

So must it have been with Man. Translated into terms of factors,
how has that progress in control of nature which we call civilisation
been achieved? By the sporadic appearance of variations, mostly, per-
haps all, consisting in a loss of elements, which inhibit the free
working of the mind. The members of civilised communities, when
they think about such things at all, imagine the process a gradual one,
and that they themselves are active agents in it. Few, however, contri-
bute anything but their labour; and except in so far as they have
freedom to adopt and imitate, their physiological composition is that
of an earlier order of beings. Annul the work of a few hundreds—
I might almost say scores—of men, and on what plane of civilisation
should we be? We should not have advanced beyond the medieval
stage without printing, chemistry, steam, electricity, or surgery worthy
the name. These things are the contributions of a few excessively rare
minds. Galton reckoned those to whom the term ‘ illustrious’ might
be applied as one in a million, but in that number he is, of course,
reckoning men famous in ways which add nothing to universal progress.
To improve by subordinate invention, to discover details missed, even
to apply knowledge never before applied, all these things need genius
in some degree, and are far beyond the powers of the average man of
our race; but the true pioneer, the man whose penetration creates a
new world, as did that of Newton and of Pasteur, is inconceivably
rare. But for a few thousands of such men, we should perhaps be in
the Paleolithic era, knowing neither metals, writing, arithmetic,
weaving, nor pottery.

In the history of Art the same is true, but with this remarkable
difference, that not only are gifts of artistic creation very rare, but

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 33

even the faculty of artistic enjoyment, not to speak of higher powers
of appreciation, is not attained without variation from the common
type. I am speaking, of course, of the non-Semitic races of modern
Europe, among whom the power whether of making or enjoying works
of art is confined to an insignificant number of individuals. Apprecia-
tion can in some degree be simulated, but in our population there is
no widespread physiological appetite for such things. When detached
from the centres where they are made by others most of us pass our
time in great contentment, making nothing that is beautiful, and quite
unconscious of any deprivation. Musical taste is the most notable
exception, for in certain races—for example, the Welsh and some
of the Germans—it is almost universal. Otherwise artistic faculty is
still sporadic in its occurrence. The cost of music well illustrates the
application of genetic analysis to human faculty. No one disputes
that musical ability is congenital. In its fuller manifestation it
demands sense of rhythm, ear, and special nervous,and muscular
powers. Hach of these is separable and doubtless genetically distinct.
Hach is the consequence of a special departure from the common type.
Teaching and external influences are powerless to evoke these faculties,
though their development may be assisted. The only conceivable
way in which the people of England, for example, could become a
musical nation would be by the gradual rise in the proportional numbers
of a musical strain or strains until_the present type became so rare
as to be negligible. It by no means follows that in any other respect
the resulting population would be distinguishable from the present one.
Difficulties of this kind beset the efforts of anthropologists to trace
racial origins. It must continually be remembered that most characters
are independently transmitted and capable of such recombination. In
the light of Mendelian knowledge the discussion whether a race is pure
or mixed loses almost all significance. A race is pure if it breeds pure
and not otherwise. Historically we may know that a race like our
Own was, as a matter of fact, of mixed origin. But a character may
have been introduced by a single individual, though subsequently it
becomes common to the race. This is merely a variant on the familiar
paradox that in the course of time if registration is accurate we shall
all have the same surname. In the case of music, for instance, the
gift, originally perhaps from a Welsh source, might permeate the
nation, and the question would then arise whether the nation, so
changed, was the English nation or not.

Such a problem is raised in a striking form by the population of
modern Greece, and especially of Athens. The racial characteristics
of the Athenian of the fifth century B.c. are vividly described by

_ Galton in ‘ Hereditary Genius.’ The fact that in that period a
population, numbering many thousands, should have existed, capable
1914. D

34 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

of following the great plays at a first hearing, revelling in subtleties of
speech, and thrilling with passionate delight in beautiful things, is
physiologically a most singular phenomenon. On the basis of the
number of illustrious men produced by that age Galton estimated the
average intelligence as at least two of his degrees above our own,
differing from us as much as we do from the negro. A few generations
later the display was over. The origin of that constellation of human
genius which then blazed out is as yet beyond all biological analysis, but
I think we are not altogether without suspicion of the sequence of the
biological events. If I visit a poultry-breeder who has a fine stock of
thoroughbred game fowls breeding true, and ten years later—that is to
say ten fowl-generations later—I go again and find scarcely a recognis-
able game-fowl on the place, I know exactly what has happened. One
or two birds of some other or of no breed must have strayed in and
their progeny been left undestroyed. Now in Athens we have many
indications that up to the beginning of the fifth century so long
as the phratries and gentes were maintained in their integrity there
was rather close endogamy, a condition giving the best chance of
producing a homogeneous population. There was no lack of material
from which intelligence and artistic power might be derived. Sporadi-
cally these qualities existed throughout the ancient Greek world from
the dawn of history, and, for example, the vase-painters, the makers
of the Tanagra figurines, and the gem-cutters were presumably pur-
suing family crafts, much as are the actor-families? of England or
the professorial families of Germany at the present day. How the
intellectual strains should have acquired predominance we cannot tell,
but in an in-breeding community homogeneity at least is not surprising.
At the end of the sixth century came the ‘ reforms’ of Cleisthenes
(507 B.c.), which sanctioned foreign marriages and admitted to citizen-
ship a number not only of resident aliens but also of manumitted
slaves. As Aristotle says, Cleisthenes legislated with the deliberate
purpose of breaking up the phratries and gentes, in order that the
various sections of the population might be mixed up as much as
possible, and the old tribal associations abolished. The ‘ reform’ was
probably a recognition and extension of a process already begun; but
is it too much to suppose that we have here the effective beginning
of a series of genetic changes which in a few generations so greatly
altered the character of the people? Under Pericles the old law was
restored (451 3.c.), but losses in the great wars led to further laxity in
practice, and though at the end of the fifth century the strict rule
was re-enacted that a citizen must be of citizen-birth on both sides,
the population by that time may well have become largely mongrelised.

Let me not be construed as arguing that mixture of races is an

° For tables of families, see the Supplement to Who’s Who in the Theatre.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 35

evil: far from it. A population like our own, indeed, owes much of
its strength to the extreme diversity of its components, for they con-
tribute a corresponding abundance of aptitudes. Everything turns on
the nature of the ingredients brought in, and I am concerned solely
with the observation that these genetic disturbances lead ultimately
to great and usually unforeseen changes in the nature of the population.

Some experiments of this kind are going on at the present time,
in the United States, for example, on a very large scale. Our grand-
children may live to see the characteristics of the American population
entirely altered by the vast invasion of Italian and other South
Buropean elements. We may expect that the Eastern States, and
especially New England, whose people still exhibit the fine Puritan
_ qualities with their appropriate limitations, absorbing little of the
alien elements, will before long be in feelings and aptitudes very notably
differentiated from the rest. In J apan, also, with the abolition of the
feudal system and the rise of commercialism, a change in population
has begun which may be worthy of the attention of naturalists in that
country. Tull the revolution the Samurai almost always married within
their own class, with the result, as I am informed, that the caste had
fairly recognisable features. The changes of 1868 and the consequent
impoverishment of the Samurai have brought about a beginning of
disintegration which may not improbably have perceptible effects.

How many genetic vicissitudes has our own peerage undergone!
Into the hard-fighting stock of medisval and Plantagenet times have
successively been crossed the cunning shrewdness of Tudor states-
men and courtiers, the numerous contributions of Charles IT. and
his concubines, reinforcing peculiar and persistent attributes which
popular imagination especially regards as the characteristic of peers,
ultimately the heroes of finance and industrialism. Definitely intellec-
tual elements have been sporadically added, with rare exceptions,
however, from the ranks of lawyers and politicians. To this
aristocracy art, learning, and science have contributed sparse in-
gredients, but these mostly chosen for celibacy or childlessness. A
remarkable body of men, nevertheless; with an average ‘ horse-power,’
as Samuel Butler would have said, far exceeding that of any random
sample of the middle-class. If only man could be reproduced by
budding what a simplification it would be! In vegetative reproduction
heredity is usually complete. The Washington plum can be divided
to produce as many identical individuals as are required. If, Bay,
Washington, the statesman, or preferably King Solomon, could
similarly have been propagated, all the nations of the earth could
have been supplied with ideal rulers.

Historians commonly ascribe such changes as occurred in Athens,
and will almost certainly come to pass in the United States, to

36 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

conditions of life and especially to political institutions. These agencies,
however, do little unless they are such as to change the breed.
External changes may indeed give an opportunity to special strains,
which then acquire ascendency. The industrial developments which
began at the end of the eighteenth century, for instance, gave a chance
to strains till then submerged, and their success involved the decay
of most of the old aristocratic families. But the demagogue who
would argue from the rise of the one and the fall of the other that
the original relative positions were not justifiable altogether mistakes the
facts.

Conditions give opportunities but cause no variations. For example,
in Athens, to which I just referred, the universality of cultivated dis-
cernment could never have come to pass but for the institution of
slavery which provided the opportunity, but slavery was in no sense a
cause of that development, for many other populations have lived on
slaves and remained altogether inconspicuous.

The long-standing controversy as to the relative importance of nature
and nurture, to use Galton’s ‘ convenient jingle of words,’ is drawing
to an end, and of the overwhelmingly greater significance of nature
there is no longer any possibility of doubt. It may be well briefly to
recapitulate the arguments on which naturalists rely in coming to
this decision both as regards races and individuals. First as regards
human individuals, there is the common experience that children
of the same parents reared under conditions sensibly identical may
develop quite differently, exhibiting in character and aptitudes a
segregation just as great as in their colours or hair-forms. Conversely
all the more marked aptitudes have at various times appeared and not
rarely reached perfection in circumstances the least favourable for
their development. Next, appeal can be made to the universal experi-
ence of the breeder, whether of animals or plants, that strain is
absolutely essential, that though bad conditions may easily enough
spoil a good strain, yet that under the best conditions a bad strain
will never give a fine result. It is faith, not evidence, which encourages
educationists and economists to hope so greatly in the ameliorating
effects of the conditions of life. Let us consider what they can do
and what they cannot. By reference to some sentences in a charming
though pathetic book, ‘ What Is, and What Might Be,’ by Mr. Edmond
Holmes, which will be well known in the Educational Section, I may
make the point of view of us naturalists clear. I take Mr. Holmes’s
pronouncement partly because he is an enthusiastic believer in the
efficacy of nurture as opposed to nature, and also because he illus-
trates his views by frequent appeals to biological analogies which help
us to a common ground. Wheat badly cultivated will give a bad yield,
though, as Mr. Holmes truly says, wheat of the same strain in similar

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 37

soil well cultivated may give a good harvest. But, having witnessed
the success of a great natural teacher in helping unpromising peasant
children to develop their natural powers, he gives us another botanical
parallel. Assuming that the wild bullace is the origin of domesticated
plums, he tells us that by cultivation the bullace can no doubt be
improved so far as to become a better bullace, but by no means can
the bullace be made to bear plums. All this is sound biology; but
translating these facts into the human analogy, he declares that the
work of the successful teacher shows that with man the facts are other-
wise, and that the average rustic child, whose normal ideal is ‘ bullace-
hood,’ can become the rare exception, developing to a stage corre-
sponding with that of the plum. But the naturalist knows exactly
where the parallel is at fault. For the wheat and the bullace are
both breeding approximately true, whereas the human crop, like jute
and various cottons, is in a state of polymorphic mixture. The popula-
tion of many English villages may be compared with the crop which
would result from sowing a bushel of kernels gathered mostly from the
hedges, with an occasional few from an orchard. If anyone asks
how it happens that there are any plum-kernels in the sample at all,
he may find the answer perhaps in spontaneous variation, but more
probably in the appearance of a long-hidden recessive. For the want
of that genetic variation, consisting probably, as I have argued, in
loss of inhibiting factors, by which the plum arose from the wild form,
neither food, nor education, nor hygiene can in any way atone. Many
wild plants are half-starved through competition, and transferred to
garden soil they grow much bigger; so good conditions might certainly
enable the bullace population to develop beyond the stunted physical and
mental stature they commonly attain, but plums they can never be.
Modern statesmanship aims rightly at helping those who have got sown
as wildings to come into their proper class ; but let not anyone suppose
such a policy democratic in its ultimate effects, for no course of
action can be more effective in strengthening the upper classes whilst
weakening the lower.

In all practical schemes for social reform the congenital diversity,
the essential polymorphism of all civilised communities must be recog-
nised as a fundamental fact, and reformers should rather direct their
efforts to facilitating and rectifying class-distinctions than to any futile
attempt to abolish them. ‘The teaching of biology is perfectly clear.
We are what we are by virtue of our differentiation. The value of
civilisation has in all ages been doubted. Since, however, the first
variations were not strangled in their birth, we are launched on that
course of variability of which civilisation is the consequence. We can-
not go back to homogeneity again, and differentiated we are likely
to continue. For a period measures designed to create a spurious

38 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

homogeneity may be applied. Such attempts will, I anticipate, be made
when the present unstable social state reaches a climax of instability,
which may not be long hence. Their effects can be but evanescent.
The instability is due not to inequality, which is inherent and congenital,
but rather to the fact that in periods of rapid change like the present,
convection-currents are set up such that the elements of the strata
get intermixed and the apparent stratification corresponds only roughly
with the genetic. Ina few generations under uniform conditions these
elements settle in their true levels once more.

In such equilibrium is content most surely to be expected. ‘To the
naturalist the broad lines of solution of the problems of social dis-
content are evident. They lie neither in vain dreams of a mystical and
disintegrating equality, nor in the promotion of that malignant indi-
vidualism which in older civilisations has threatened mortification of
the humbler organs, but rather in a physiological co-ordination of the
constituent parts of the social organism. The rewards of commerce
are grossly out of proportion to those attainable by intellect or industry.
Even regarded as compensation for a dull life, they far exceed the
value of the services rendered to the community. Such disparity is an
incident of the abnormally rapid growth of population and is quite
indefensible as a permanent social condition. Nevertheless capital,
distinguished as a provision for offspring, is a eugenic institution; and
unless human instinct undergoes some profound and improbable
variation, abolition of capital means the abolition of effort; but as in
the body the power of independent growth of the parts is limited and
subordinated to the whole, similarly in the community we may limit the
powers of capital, preserving so much inequality of privilege as
corresponds with physiological fact.

At every turn the student of political science is confronted with
problems that demand biological knov ledge for their solution. Most
obviously is this true in regard te education, the criminal law, and
all those numerous branches of policy and administration which are
directly concerned with the physiological capacities of mankind.
Assumptions as to what can be done and what cannot be done to
modify individuals and races have continually to be made, and the
basis of fact on which such decisions are founded can be drawn only
from biological study.

A knowledge of the facts of nature is not yet deemed an essential
part of the mental equipment of politicians; but as the priest, who
began in other ages as medicine-man, has been obliged to abandon
the medical parts of his practice, so will the future behold the school-
master, the magistrate, the lawyer, and ultimately the statesman,
compelled to share with the naturalist those functions which are
concerned with the physiology of race.

\
i aie

REPORTS

ON THE
= (

STATH OF SCIENCH.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Seismological Investigations.—Nineteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman),
Professor J. Perry (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Mr. F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK,
Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G.
Knott, Sir J. Larmor, Professor R. Metpona, Mr. W. EH.
Puummer, Dr. R. A. Sampson, Professor A. ScHUSTER, Mr.
J. J. SHaw, and Dr. G. W. WALKER. (Drawn up by the

Chairman.)
[Prats I.]
CONTENTS.
PAGE

I. General Notes, Registers, Visitors, Stations . ; z r J A ae 4
er SemmicAchouityiin VOU Nae os et we, SE
II. Distribution of Harthquake Centres : A iii ates Mie tice! Cee suo.
IV. Discussion of Results from Different Seismographs cabs MET Ne Weny ere, WAG
V. Comparison of Films for 1911 A TODA a, Park mine. (roe
VI. Comparison of Milne and Galitzin Pnsirmenis te ako fen ator Old. it 4D
VII. Present Value of the Milne Instrument. . . . . «. «. . 62
VIII. Correction of the GD ESS On Ee Gnd. Mat hr. me da ect i) ciae) Resets, 2 ee LOO
IX. Discussion in Azimuth . Uy atin. OLE BOSE EAE SOG (EOE

I.—General Notes.

Tue Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 60).

The death of John Milne, in July 1913, creates a situation of
some difficulty and anxiety. He organised a world-wide seismological
service with very little financial help from others. In many of the
outlying stations the instrumental equipment was provided either by
himself or by one of his friends, and the care of it has been gener-
ously undertaken by a volunteer who is often busily engaged in other
work. The collation of results was in the early years undertaken by
Milne himself, with the able help of Shinobu Hirota. Of late years
a subsidy of 200]. a year from the Government Grant Fund allowed
of paid assistants; and Shinobu Hirota thus obtained a well-deserved
official position; but for many years the only salary he received was
paid from Milne’s own pocket. It is by no means certain that the
volunteer services at the stations, and the subsidy from the Govern-
ment Grant Fund which makes it possible to keep running the
central station at Shide, can be long continued; and it seems in
any case very improbable that they can be rendered permanent.
But a much more serious difficulty is the want of a salary for a
Director or Superintendent of the whole British network of stations,
who can give undivided attention to the valuable results which they
have accumulated and to which they are daily adding. The salary of

42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

a competent Director, with the requisite mathematical knowledge,
cannot be put lower than 5001. or 600]. a year, and there is at
present no prospect of obtaining even this endowment. The super-
intendence has, of course, been hitherto provided voluntarily by Milne
himself; and a certain amount of volunteer attention is available for
the present. But seismology is developing so rapidly that the whole-
hearted attention of at least one English mathematician should be
devoted to it; and if an endowment for a British Director could be
obtained this would surely be the most direct method of doing
justice to a new and fascinating science which was nurtured by an
Englishman. The negative result of previous appeals to the Govern-
ment does not encourage the hope of their taking any action, and
the chief hope thus lies in the direction of private benefaction.
Is it too much to hope that some generous benefactor will provide a
firm footing for seismology ?

The present state of affairs is as follows:—The Shide Observatory
is rented from Mrs. Milne at 20]. a year. The work of the Shide
station and the collation of results from other stations is being
done by Mr. J. H. Burgess, who assisted Professor Milne in the later
years of his life, especially after the return of Shinobu Hirota to
Japan. At the time of Professor Milne’s death the work of collation
was in arrear; and in order to bring it up to date assistance is
being temporarily rendered by Mr. 8. W. Pring (who had already
considerable knowledge of the work) and his daughter. The general
superintendence is undertaken by the Chairman of this Committee,
partly by correspondence and partly by personal visits to Shide (on
September 20-21, January 17-20, March 29-April 2, and May 9-11).

Registers. Card Catalogue System. Monthly Bulletins.—The
form of the Circulars has been changed. Up to the present the in-
formation supplied by each individual station has been printed separ-
ately, thus leaving the formal collation of results to others. But
since a good deal of collation was actually done at Shide in order
to eliminate accidental tremors from the records, it seemed desirable
to render this work generally available at the cost of a slight
extension. The collation was formerly done in a large book with
ruled columns, one double page being devoted to each month. In
place of this a card catalogue system has been adopted. The
information supplied by the stations is copied on to cards, a separate
card for each day. A cabinet of twelve drawers (one for each calendar
month) has been made, each drawer divided into 32 partitions (4 x 8)
corresponding to the days of the month (with 1—4 over), and the
cards are slipped into the proper partition as they are copied off.
When all the records have been received for the month (and the
stations have been asked kindly to send their records each month) it
is easily seen by comparison of the different cards in any partition
which are the important quakes and which are microseisms or
accidental tremors. For the first few months of 1913 details were
printed for all disturbances recorded at more than four stations; but
experience quickly showed that much of this information was of

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 43

comparatively little value, the records for small quakes being liable
to errors of various kinds; and from April 1913 onwards a chart
has been printed showing merely that such and such a quake has
been observed at a particular station without further details, except
in the case of a really large earthquake. It is, of course, difficult to
draw a satisfactory line between large earthquakes and small, but a
practical procedure was based on the following figures given in the
April Bulletin :—

Number of Stations recording an Earthquake :
Month oo |
| 5 to 10 | 11 to 20 | 21 to 30 | 31 to 40 41 to 50 | Over 50 |
|
a | | |
January BLN wksareie lh tag ccd Sts) eres 4 2
February Dia 5 ay 1 0 1
March . 6 | 9 7 3 2 3
April. 9 | 13 6 10 4 3
Total =. .| 28 | 32 21 16 10 9

According to this table, if attention is confined to those earthquakes
recorded at thirty-one stations at least, we should get a hundred of
them in a year; and it was thought sufficient to give full details for
these. It should be remarked that the stations are no longer Milne
stations only—the list has been extended to include all those stations
which send their records to Shide; and it is hoped that this compre-
hensive collation of results will be found useful. Undoubtedly a
comparison with tabular theoretical results would increase its useful-
ness, and it is hoped to undertake such a comparison from January
1914; but to attempt this for 1913 would have seriously delayed
publication (already considerably in arrear), and indeed was scarcely
possible until a tentative discussion such as is given later in the present
Report had been carried out.

Notation.—One other change will be made in January 1914. The
symbols P,, P,, P,, &c., were introduced by Milne, and have been
used by him throughout his work, although he assented to the change
to P, S, L, &c., as determined at the Manchester Meeting, 1911, of
the International Seismological Association. It seemed only a proper
mark of respect to complete the year of Milne’s death (1913) in his
notation; but the change to the adopted system will be made from the
beginning of 1914.

Visitors.—The station at Shide continues to attract a number of
visitors, many of them with only a limited knowledge of seismology ;
their visits naturally make inroads on the time of the assistant-in-
charge, but it seems undesirable to discourage them at the present
juncture. The visits of seismologists have naturally been affected by
Milne’s death; and in the consequent disorganisation the visitors’ book
was for a time not regularly posted; but we have had the pleasure
of seeing at Shide Mr. J. J. Shaw of West Bromwich, Mr. E. F.
Norris of Guildford, Mr. J. Round and Mr. S. B. Round of

44 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Birmingham, Mr. L. F. Richardson of Eskdalemuir, and Mr. J. E.
Crombie of Aberdeen.

Il.—Seismic Activity in 1911.

The visit of the British Association to Australia makes it necessary
to have the greater part of this Report in proof at an earlier date than
usual. The list of origins for 1911, in continuation of those given in
previous Reports, is not completed at this date; but it is hoped to add
it at the end of the Report before it is finally printed off for
distribution.

IlI.—Distribution of Earthquake Centres.

Study of the information collected by Milne in previous Reports has
suggested a new form of the map which he has usually printed
showing the distribution of large earthquakes. On some of these
maps he has shown Libbey’s Circle, and on others a cycle of his
own running through the chief earthquake centres,

On scrutiny of the distribution of centres not thus accounted for,
the existence of a curve of secondary disturbance was suggested,
with the suggestive feature of enclosing most of the land on the earth’s
surface—skirting especially the Western coast of North America and
the Eastern coast of Asia. Adjustments by trial and error of these
two curves showed that it was not difficult to make them great circles
cutting at right angles; but not easy to make them account for all
the striking facts. More or less by accident, the third great circle
cutting both at right angles was drawn, and immediately several
striking geographical features fell into line. Further work on this
system of three great circles suggested after many trials a system
symmetrical with respect to the earth’s axis, the points of intersection
being at about 55° (accurately tan ~!./2) from the poles; and there
was little trouble in fixing the approximate longitudes at 259 + 60° n
Kast.

A system of three great circles cutting at right angles divides the
surface of the sphere into eight equilateral right-angled triangies. If
we project each of these on a tangent plane at its centre, we get
an octahedron surrounding the sphere, and we can unwrap it into a
plane in various ways. The particular plan of the accompanying map
is adopted in order to bring out the striking symmetry, both seismo-
logical and geographical, of the earth as thus represented, a symmetry
only slightly disguised by the one-sidedness of the water covering.
[ We can imagine the distribution made quite symmetrical, and then
the upper right-hand corner dipped slightly more under the water; but
we will neglect this point for a moment. ]

Six of the triangles are easily recognised, the other two have
been divided by their median lines in order to show the symmetry
while keeping the figure compact; but ABC and CBD could be detached
from AC and CD, and joined along CB placed in a vertical position,
thus keeping the symmetry at the expense of a little detachment.

Let us consider the triangle EFK, which is chiefly Asia. India lies
nearly on the median line, pointing to the apex of the triangle; and just

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] [Prats I,

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations.
[To face page 44,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 45

above India Tibet, the highest land in the world, occupies nearly the
centre of the triangle. The side KE runs through a well-known
series of earthquake centres skirting the coast, of which perhaps the
most important are at HE (Japan) and S (Borneo), one at the extremity
and the other near the middle point. The continuation of KE is EC,
since the angles FEK and FEC, though they are only 60° on the
plane projections, are 90° on the sphere; and since there is a notable
centre U (Alaska) near the middle of EC, we may perhaps consider
S and U as corresponding points of strain.

The side KF is not so conspicuous a line of earthquakes at present,
though the point F (Crete) is a familiar region, and corresponding
to S we may take R, the middle point of FK, as representing earth-
quakes in the Indian Ocean. But apart from modern records, the
geographical features of ‘this line RF, viz., the Red Sea, the Grecian
Archipelago, and the Adriatic, are strongly suggestive of crumpling
into folds at some time in the past. Continuing the line along FC,
there is an active centre near the middle point T which is not far
from Iceland; so that S, E, V have corresponding points in R, F, T;
the former are at present the stronger, but this may not have been
always so.

The apex C is not an earthquake centre, but near it, and sym-
metrically disposed on the sides CD, CA, are the Californian and
West Indian regions. The symmetry of the whole arrangement round
the point V (close to Tomsk) will be complete if we may put two
Antarctic centres at the points P and Q which are in latitude —53° and
longitudes 55° and 115° East. Milne assigned two Antarctic regions
near these as a result of observations made during the voyage of the
“ Discovery ’ (March 14, 1902, to November 28, 1903), but it is doubt-
ful whether the material is sufficient to locate them exactly.

As regards the remainder of the map, the symmetrical disposition
of South Africa and Australia is noteworthy; but as we go northwards
from them the symmetry disappears, the upper half of the African
triangle being land, that of the Australian water (though much of it
not very deep). Superposed on the arrangement symmetrical, about
the line CK there is at least one unsymmetrical character which may
be roughly described as a division into land and water hemispheres,
and as such has been often noted. In the present diagram the salient
points of this contrast are :—

(a) Land in the triangle FGK, water in the triangle CDE.

(b) Water in the middle of land in the triangle ACF, land in the
middle of water in EKL.

(c) The absence of land corresponding to South America, on the
line CD. If a bathy-orographical map be consulted it will, however,
be found that there is a shallow in this part of the ocean, not very
different from South America in shape. It is conceivable that a mere
shift of the earth’s centre of gravity might uncover this ‘ image’ of
South America.

Tn a future Report it is hoped to show the actual distribution of
observed earthquakes on this map; but this will take some little time.

46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

IV.—Discussion of Results from Different Seismographs.

The card catalogue system introduced at Shide for records from
January 1913 onwards facilitates the comparison of results from
different instruments. The following discussion is only preliminary, and
the unit of time adopted (0°l m. or 6 sec.) is not small enough to
do justice to the best instruments. But itis as small as can reasonably
be adopted for the Milne instruments, and the main object of the
discussion is to bring out the comparative attainments of the Milne
seismographs as compared with modern and much more sensitive
apparatus.

From the beginning of 1912, the weekly Bulletins issued from
Pulkovo give epicentres for the large earthquakes, determined by
Galitzin’s method for a single station. Adopting these as correct
and using the table printed by G. W, Walker on p. 54 of his mono-
graph on ‘ Modern Seismology,’ or by Galitzin in his ‘ Vorlesungen
iiber Seismometrie,’ p. 137, we can deduce from the times recorded at
Pulkovo for either P or S, the time of the earthquake itself. Re-
applying the table we can deduce the theoretical times of arrival of
P and S at other stations, for comparison with their records. For
this purpose the distances of the stations from the epicentre were read
to whole degrees from a globe, which again is a method unsuitable to
refined investigation, but sufficiently accurate for the present pre-
liminary examination.

As an example, the times recorded for the earthquake of 1913,
January 11, were as follows :—

P S
haem” 8 be, moses
13 29 45 13 40 9
Subtract ‘ : ; ; 12 36 22 54
Time at epicentre. . . . LSP ee =D 13 17 15

The distance of Florence from the adopted epicentre (6° N., 1179 B..)
was read off as 98°, and the calculated and observed times were:

For P | For S
C Cppaabie Ooh Hae ergata
i Mitt || sae eee h m. | m.
| 18 31-1] 13 30:2) —0-9 | 18 42-7 | 13 35 | —7:7

These differences O—C were collected and discussed for the following
five earthquakes :—

Date Adopted Epicentre aoe mere oa

° ° ° h. m.

1913, January 11 Rite ge 6-0 N., 117-0 E. 83 13. 17-2
1913, March 23... . «(| 26-3N., 143-38. 78 20 47-2
1913, April30 . . . «| 50-2N., 176-:3.E. 67 13 34-4
1913, May 18 . . . . | 263N., 143-7E. 79 2 9-7
19lesdune 22) 2 ae a OO N. al7S8-1 66 13 50:3

Summary
(Corrected)

— 100°— 130°

ON..SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
TaBLE I.
134 Errors of P for Seismographs other than Milne’s.
Distance from Epicentre

Large Errors

glarend CP Sr RS rs 9 Go ret ir
Ais dtdmaaaaes

0200000000 SPAHMrOMOHAOAAS AAG HH SE OBOAA
} 0 Ped game all tae ee srooooocooooooooseoooooornas
, geocxwoeovwo% = ote | le lias}
| Ao btm aaae

ean ey

Large Errors

48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIm#NCE.—1914,

In Table I. the differences are grouped under distances from epi-
centre, all instruments other than Milne being grouped together.

Errors greater than 6 m.—The five large positive residuals are as
follows :—

Instru- | rrors | Dist. fr
Observatory ment | Date a 7 acne
m. m. =

FUPICSE auc) uancoe eee tts W 1913, Jan. 11 | +106 +7-4 95
Tneshwceyy a1 ak Ww 1913, May 18 | +104 — | 96
Triest . Se Dee W 1913, June 22. +103 — 83
Czernowitz . : : Ma. | 1913, May 23 +10-1 +9-5 89
Pompeii - . «| OA. | 1913, June 22 | 492 — | 88

The difference between the times of arrival of P and S being near
10m. it is possible that some of these are mistakes of P for S. But
in the case of Czernowitz, a mistake of 10m. in both P and S seems
probable. It is safer to omit these cases as anomalies than to attempt
to correct them.

Errors. <6 m. and >1 m.—With the exception of a couple near
the epicentre these do not develop until near 90°. Between 90° and
100°, however, they outnumber the normal errors given in the body of
the table. They are doubtless due to the fact that a reflected wave
has been mistaken for the direct wave. The fact that the first reflected
effect PR is often more pronounced than P in the case of distant earth-
quakes is duly noted in Walker’s monograph (p. 41); it may not, how-
ever, be realised that it is so often mistaken for P in the published
records of sensitive instruments. Beyond 100° from the epicentre
no times for P were correctly given at all for the five earthquakes
here examined. It is not intended to ignore the fact that these differ-
ences will change with distance from epicentre, but for the present
rough review we will neglect this change. The median is 3°75 m.
or 3m. 45s. The mean of the differences from this is + 0°53m. But
it does not seem clear that some of the differences which may be faulty
P readings should be included. If these are excluded the median is’
3°8m.; the mean is 3°87m.; and the mean of the differences from
the mean is + 0°35 m.

Normal Errors.—Coming now to the main part of Table I., if we
take the errors as they stand (assuming the time-table for P correct
throughout) the mean of the 87 differences is —O'07m. or —4s.
But there is a systematic run about the differences as may be seen
from the following means for the separate columns :—

0° — 40° — 80° — 90° — 100°
m. m. m. m.
+0-13 =-0-01 —0-11 —0:27
The process adopted in the previous work does not justify any
great. refinement of correction; but we may fairly correct the different
columns by the quantities

0° — 40° — 80° — 90° — 100°
m. m. m. m.
—0-1 0-0 +0-1 +0-3

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 49

and then the errors are distributed as in the last column. The mean
is now +0°014m. or +0°8s. and the mean of the errors is + 0°31 m.,
very close to the mean of the errors 0°35 m. obtained above for the
reflected wave. A’ considerable part of this mean error may be due
to the errors of reading distances from the epicentre, and to the error
of assumed position of the epicentre itself.

Large Negative Readings.—The eight negative readings are prob-
ably due to accidental air tremors just preceding the quake; these
call for no special remark here except that they seem to be pretty
clearly separated off from the normal readings; even making a generous
allowance for accidental error in the latter. It will be seen that the
numerically smallest (—2°3m.) is a full minute away from the out-
side error (— 1'2m.) included among possible normal readings. The
details may be given here in case the observatories care to examine
the records :—

Observatory pee Date es Ss wees

m. m. Fa
Lemberg B.O Jan. 11, 1913 — 33 — 88
Lemberg B.O. Mar. 23, 1913 — 50 — 87
Lemberg B.O. April 30, 1913 —14-2 — 79
Lemberg B.O. June 22, 1913 — 42 —3-9 78
Aachen . W. April 30, 1913 —248 — 80
Paris. . —_ Mar. 23, 1913 — 34 —0-7 98
Ksara — Mar. 23, 1913 — 23 — 90
Batavia W. Mar. 23, 1913 - 33 — 47

Coming now to S, two large positive errors have already been
mentioned as associated with large positive errors in P, viz., +9°5 m.
at OCzernowitz on 1913, March 23, and +7°4m. at Triest on 1913,
January 11, as also one considerable negative error of —3°9m. at
Lemberg on June 22, 1918. These are omitted from further notice.
Two large negative errors are

Observatory Machine Date P Ss A
Tiflis . igs Ca G 1913, Jan. 11 +02 —81 ie
Florence . . . A 1913, Jan. 11 —09 —7-7 gs°

The former is due to some unknown mistake; the latter is probably
a mistake of S for PR,. These are also omitted from further notice.
Two positive errors of smaller amount as follows :—

Observatory Date P Ss A
IRiverviow «|... <« . & 1913, June 22 —0:3 +4:5 94°
Heidelberg . . . . 1913, June 22 +01 +4-7 80°

are omitted as quite anomalous. The remaining errors are grouped

in Table II.

1914. a E

50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tasxe II.

- Errors of S for Seismographs other than Milne’s.
(Unit 0-1 m. or 6s.)
Distance from Epicentre
40° 80° 130°

oO
°

+2-1 to 42. 5
+1-6 to +2:0
+1-1 to +1-5
+0-6 to +1:0
+0:1 to +0°5
—04to 00
—0-9 to —0°5
—14to—10 |
| —19to —15 |
| —2-4 to —2-0
—2°9 to —2:5

id
“Tho bo OO OR Re toe

se Fa

Mean . 4 +0°5 —0°2 —0°5

_It would hereby appear that while the tables for P are fairly
accurate, those for § are sensibly in error. The amount of error
cannot be assigned more than very roughly by the present method,
because the error for Pulkovo comes differently into the various earth-
quakes. But it would appear that the times of arrival of S at 20°
distance and at 100° distance from the epicentre are relatively erro-
neous by something like a whole minute. The error is apparently
not complicated in the case of § by any reflection phenomenon; the
residuals for P are definitely grouped about two separate maxima,
but for 5 this is not so. The first group (0°—40°) is too small to
show a decided maximum ; but the position of the maximum is clearly
marked in the other two by the numbers given in the table. As a
rough expedient the following corrections have been applied :—

Distance from Epicentre
15° 258°! M45 bos 659 Tb? Bb" eNO abe
Correction . —0-3 —0-2 —01 00 +01 +02 +03 +04 +05 +0-6
the correction for 15° being applied to distances between 10° and
20°, and so on. The corrected errors are then distributed as follows :—

Distance from Epicentre .

oe 2 6—— )=—40° SO —)Ss 80° — so -180°—Ss Al

+2:8 to +3-2 te been ty | le Gee
+2:3 to +2-7 — —_ 3 3
41-8 to 12-2 = as aa 0
413 to 41-7 1 1 2 4

j +0-8 to +1-2 2 6 — 8
40-3 to --0-7 2 4 6 12
—0:2 to +0-2 — 11 13 24
—0:7 to —0:3 2 2 12 16
—1-2 to —0°8 1 4 10 15
—1:7 to —1:3 — 2 1 3
—2-2 to —1:8 — 1 —_— 1
Totals 8 31 48 87

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 51

The mean of the errors is + 0°73 m., and though there is a slight
tendency to increase from the second group to the third, the material
is fairly homogeneous. Now, comparing this with the mean for P,
viz. + 031 m., it is clear that we are dealing with a much less
definitely marked phenomenon, as is indeed well known. Part of
each of these mean errors is due to errors of reading, &c.; and this
part should be approximately the same in both. If we were to calcu-
late and remove it, the ratio between the two, already greater than
2 to 1, would be sensibly increased.

In determining A from P and §, the superior accuracy of P is there-
fore rendered more or less useless by the uncertainty of S. Galitzin’s
azimuthal method of determining the epicentre has thus obvious
advantages; if the epicentre is well determined from the azimuths
at several stations, and if the time of the catastrophe is determined
from the Ps at these stations, we should appear to have the material
in the best shape for improving the tables of P and S, especially the
latter.

But this is a digression from the present investigation, which is
primarily concerned with the performance of the Milne instruments.

Putting aside for the present any question of correcting the tables
for S, and therefore the position of the epicentre (as determined from
Pulkovo), and consequent correction of the calculated times, it is clear
that we can compare the performance of the Milne pendulums with
other instruments on a common basis (though not the ultimate basis)
by collecting their records for the same earthquakes in the same way.
This is done in the following Table III., which corresponds to
Table I.

It will be seen—

(2) That there are 5 large positive errors and 8 large negative
errors, for which no special explanation can be given. In Table I.
there are 8 negative errors, no positive.

(b) That in 6+5+104+5=26 cases, S has presumably been read
in place of P. With other instruments there were only 5 such cases.

(c) That in at least 17 cases a reading has been made which can
be attributed to a reflected wave. There are, moreover, 9 readings
intermediate between these and the normal readings, which are extreme
cases of one or the other. The line of demarcation is not so sharp as
before. Similarly there are 5 doubtful negative readings.

(d) In the middle part of the table have been collected within the
same limits as before what may be fairly regarded as normal readings.

They number 25 in all, They do not of themselves suggest
any corrections to the table for P, but we might use the same correc-
tions as before. It is simpler, however, to resfrict attention to the
second and largest group, the mean of the errors for which is + 0°4 m.
If, however, we include in this the ‘ doubtful’ +1°8m., +1°4m.,
+12 m., and —1:0 m., —1°2 m., the mean of the errors rises to

“+ 0°6 m. For other instruments this mean was + 0°31 m.

The most significant fact is perhaps that of the whole 95

readings-only 25-at a severe scrutiny; and at most (i.e., including

EB 2

52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Taste III.

95 Errors of P for Milne Seismographs in 1913.

Distance from Epicentre

Error 0° — 40° — 80° — 90° — _ 100° — _ 130°
Large = 16-7. | 2.904 +40-7 = —
Positive — +15:3 — | +25:0 — —
Transferred | — (6) (5) | (10) (5) =
| to S | |
as — | 443 | — (9) (6) —
| Bd +3:3 — | — — —
2 = -+— 2
| Doubtful a 42-9 pe | 2:8 42.0 st
— +2:7 we +2-0 —. —
ae 41:8 Eh Sic = =
| == 41-4 a | mt mL
ne +1-2 —_ | aos _ =
m.
+0:9 — 1 = | — 1 —
+0:8 —_ 1 — | — = or
+0-7 = = 1 | — —
+0:6 — — 1 | — 1 --
+0-5 1 1 eh oe — —
40-4 = 1 = = —~ | =
+0-3 rig 3 _ — = ==
+02 | — 2 = a8 = —
Ot. ly 2 ae ie ty oF
0-0 _ 1 = | oe a8 =a
—0-1 reid at an ee = =
—0-2 2 1 1 ss = —
—0-3 ma 1 == best is 23:
—0-4 \ aS fs fe aes a
—0°5 at ee a a= tee ==
—06 =. ict we a aoe =
—0-7 ar 1 ze se Es a
—0°8 | aes ee 5 3 aes =
—0-9 = 1 | 1 = —
| A
Doubtful —1-2 —10 | —1-9 —10 —
2s: —1-2 at zm =
ims bee
Large —_— — 3-4 — \) ap —12-4 _—
Negative — — 58 — | — —17:5 —
— —10-1 tS iii —25-4 ait)
= —35-3 ies | AS te ay
|

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 53

all those marked doubtful) only 39, can be regarded as true readings
of P; say 40 per cent. at most. With the other machines there are
87 out of 134, or 65 per cent.

Coming now to §, and correcting the results (which include those
transferred from P) as for other instruments, we find 12 large errors;
the others are distributed as below :—

TaBxeE LY.
38 Errors for S in Milne Seismographs tn 1918.

Distance from Epicentre

| oo — 40° — 80° — 130° All

. m. m. |
+3:3 to +3-7 — | 1 1 2
+2-8 to +3-2 Sar Seda _— —
+2:3 to +2:-7 | — — 3 3
+1:8 to +2:-2 — 1 1 2
esta ei-72 > PS = 1 1
+0:8 to +1:2 — 1 2 3
+0:3 to +0-7 2 2 2 6
—0-2 to +0:2 | — 3 3 6
—07to-03 | 9 — 2 5 7
—12to-08 = — ~ 2 2

Pepto 9-3 ak ist) vig 2 4

| —2-2 to —1:8 —_— — 1 1
—2-7 to —2:3 — 1 — 1

The mean of the errors ig + 1‘1m.; for other instruments it was
+0°73m. The ratio of these is about the same as in the case of P.
But it will be seen that there are acceptable readings of S in 38 cases,
whereas for the same earthquakes there are only 39 of P at most.
It is usually considered that the Milne instruments show P but not S.
The evidence here tabulated points to the conclusion that S is shown
at least as well as P. It is true that the five earthquakes considered
are large ones; but it might reasonably be argued that P should
therefore have the better chance of asserting itself. It seems probable
that in some cases P could be recovered from the records when it was
realised that the reading formerly given was that of S. The important
point is that without any great difficulty it can be settled when
we have an § reading, for the cases of doubt are few. We may now
give the 12 large errors excluded as mistakes; they are +35°2m.,
+11:9m.,:+10°3m., +91m., +8'7m., +86m., the smallest of
which exceeds the maximum error (+3°5 m.) accepted as S by over 5 m. ;
and on the negative side we have —4°4m,, —4°4m., —51m., —80m.,
+118m., and —14:2m. Here the separation is not so marked; but
there is a full 2m. interval. Some or all of these negative errors may
be readings of PR, but the two largest, which both occur on January 11
(Toronto —11°8 m. and Stonyhurst —14°2 m.), are supported by
several other readings and probably refer to a preliminary shock. As
the performance of the Milne pendulums is the main point under

54. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.,

investigation, not only were the above five earthquakes used, but also
five others in 1911 as follows :—

— Date Adopted Epicentre | Adopted Time

é 3 hi ai. 8
IE - 3 ; 1911, July 4 39-0N., 714E. 13 33 33
ing, : ie oe 1911, July 12 27-0 N., 116-0 E. | 4 9 7
Il. : ; : 1911, Aug. 16 19-08.,1400E. | 22 38 51
IV. : ; . 1911, Oct. 14 33:5.N., 82:5 E. 23 «24 1
We : : : 1911, Dec. 16 12-0 N., 101-8 W. 19° aS or

For these earthquakes Pulkovo epicentre determinations were not
available, but the results from Galitzin instruments at Eskdalemuir are
published in the ‘ Geophysical Journal,’ and have been adopted for
use. The computations were kindly made by Mr. A. E. Young,
formerly Deputy Surveyor-General of the Malay Survey, who is at
present working at the Oxford University Observatory; and in this
instance greater care was taken, Mr. Young calculating the distances
trigonometrically (instead of reading them from a globe) and using
the times and tables to seconds of time in the computations, though
in giving the results the unit 0'lm. has been considered sufficient.

V.—Comparison of Films for 1911.

The chief object in using this additional material was as follows.
It was thought that some of the errors of the Milne instruments might
be due to faulty readings of the records, susceptible of correction. To
test the general accuracy of such readings the different stations were
invited to send their films for the year 1911 to Shide, and many
of them have responded. Some had bound up their films in such a
way that transmission was undesirable; but films for 1911 have been
received at Shide from Cape Town, Cork, Toronto, San Fernando,
Sydney, Helwan (Egypt), Victoria, Ascension, Perth, Seychelles,
Eskdale, Guildford, and Colombo, and have been systematically
examined at Shide by Mr. Burgess and Mr. Pring, who have had
much experience in reading the Shide films. It was thought advisable
to make this examination quite independently, before knowing
whether the revised readings would suit the calculated facts better; and
indeed the calculations were made at Oxford, so that the Shide readings
were made in ignorance of the tabular result either before or after.
On comparing the old and new readings with expectation, it does not
appear that the new afford any systematic improvement on the old.
The actual figures for the above five earthquakes are as follows (the
quantities given being differences from expectation, calculated as already
indicated). They apply entirely to the phase P, the phase 5 being
seldom read from the Milne records.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 55

: TABLE V.
Comparison of Original and Revised Readings of Various Films for the
Phase P.
Ascension. Seychelles.
Quake. Orig. Rev. _ Quake. Orig. Rev.
Il. .- . . . —5:5 Not read . Menges ea ee ies peor
III. es she Ok 5-1 I. OT CRON EERY 3 0 —1:
Ss Pa [a ee: Bea Rae ieee ae
Cape T V. . - (37:0) (34-0)
ey erie For V. epicentre is so distant that tables
T . —09 +0-2 fail.
II - 42:3 +429
It . +63 +58 Sydney.
‘a ce ae le Ecce) mele ter P96 Ta
a ee ee ae beer emer We
Helwan. IT. R j , . +1-7 —13-2
Readings for Jan. and Feb. confirmed IV. Se A Se a
former results so consistently that the | For II. an earlier quake is confirmed by
scrutiny was discontinued as super- Alipore. For III. see Toronto.
fluous.
Toronto.
Perth. Bi A Sar og NOL) be
eee. 8. +86 13-5 Le eee eG Dee ME es
iV. ee eed EDD Ii. © ea Oe aes
V. oe ee te —10-se—o
San Fernando. For IIT. see Sydney.
I. Se ow) 0:2 —3:0 eer
ITl. en eee ete '27-0) ©--6-6 Victoria.
IV. . : +65 +21-7 V. 5 é é -— 01 — 0-1
V —0:3 —0:7 Films not sent for other earthquakes,

After consideration of the above figures, it was decided to apply
no corrections at all, but to accept the original readings as they stand,
and in Table VI. these are compared with calculated values. The table
corresponds to Table III. except that A was now used in km., and
the grouping is therefore a little different.

There is room for some difference of opinion as to the 17 records
marked doubtful; but the 12+13+15+3+4=47 readings in the body
of the table are probably normal. We thus get at least 47 but not
more than 64 normal readings out of 108. These figures are better than
the 1913 figures and encourage the hope that on the whole 50 per cent.
of the recorded readings for P may be normal; but the percentage
cannot be higher than this.

One feature of the records seems to demand further investigation.
There is a suggestion that the readings are divisible into two groups
separated by about a whole minute; and this applies also to the
results for 1913, though they are scarcely numerous enough to declare
it independently. It will be seen that the records —0°4 m. and —0°5 m.
are not represented in either table, thus creating an appearance of
Separation. But this may be purely accidental.

Coming now to §, Table VII. has been formed in the
bame manner as before, adopting the same corrections to the tables
for time of S. There are three consistent observations of S at A
=15,000 kms. for which the tables are scarcely available but were

Tasie VI.
108 Errors of P for Milne Seismographs in 1911.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Distance from Epicentre in kms.
0 — 5000 — 9000 — 10000 — 11000 — 13000 over
| i
m. m. |
Large Errors . | +17-2 | +22-1 — — | — | =
— +16-1 — — ae ss
SP ee (2) (6) (1) (3) (0) — +10-8?
— — — = — == + 9-7?
ae ra ave } — —- —— + 8 5?
| eas
PR, — +45 | +44 |4+61) +63 +59 +5-2
see I ee ee a pe 2a 2 ee
= +2-6 +4-2 _ +49 +55 +4-4
— +2:6 —_ _ a= ras +3-9
|
Doubtful . +1-7 41-7 | +15 — | 42:8 +3-0 ee
41-2 +1-7 | +15 | — | 423 | 42-4 — |
+1-0 +15 | +1-0 — | +10 | 41-4 — |
+1-0 +1:5 ee | Ranh aes — |
+0:9 _ — — ia | ss
+08 — — | — cers — =
+0-7 — —- | — — — | —
+05 | — 1 - — Atta} —
40-4 — — 1 —| — | —
+03 = igen, or eee a
40-2 1 16a thie a 7 i as
+01 _ _ —- — |) 1 1
0:0 — 1 1 —_|;— =
—0:1 1 — 2 — —_— 1
—0-2 a 2 a = pal =
—0:3 1 eed 2 — — 1 |
—0-4 berape fy See Nae eae ec oesat | ae Es |
—0°5 \eicee = ay = = —— |
—0:6 | 9 5 — |; — —
—0-7 ie el - | — —- |) — ==
—0:8 2 {aie ee ne ak
—0-9 1 ly ool! Toe — — ==
ait) 1 =e = = = =
—1-1 1 — — — = =
—1-2 = 4c 1 aus = ms
—1:3 ae = 1 Efe a =
—1-4 a eee te = sats
ide —a 1 = 2 = | —
Large Errors . | —43-0 —3-6 —4:8 | —3-7 = —5:5
— —4-5 — | = —
— —4:7 _ — ue

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57

provisionally extended. It seems clear that an even larger correction is
necessary at this distance than has been assumed. In calculating
the mean error these observations have been omitted, and the mean
error is then +1:1m. as before. Including them as they stand
raises if to +1°2m. :

TasLe VII.
36 Errors for S for Miine Seismographs in 1911.

|
Distance from Epicentre in kms.
0 — 5000 — 9000 — 10000 — 11000 — 16000 — All

+2-8 to +3-2
+2-3 to +2-7
+1:8 to +2-2
+1:3 to +1-7
+0-:8 to +1-2 |
40:3 to +0-7
—0-2 to +0-2
—0-:7 to —0:3 |
—1-2 to —0:8
—1-7 to —1:3
—2-2 to —1-8
—2-7 to —2-3

[Pe Stiniec Ses ate

—~-
hoe
Sr

Te SN

Re DARRPOWOND eS

1
1
1
1

Per rwro| | He |

LPs 1 sledge hare en]

In addition there are three large positive errors (+9°9m., +7°8m.
and +7Sm.) and four large negative (-52m., —5'8m., —6'7m.
and —81 m.), which may be reflected waves. The percentage is
slightly less than before, but, putting 1911 and 1918 together, we
have 36+39=75 tolerably certain S readings as against 47+25=72,
or possibly 644+39=103 P readings. The fact that S is as often
readable as P on Milne seismograms, at any rate for large earthquakes,
seems to be thus fairly well established.

VI.—Comparison of Milne and Galitzin Instruments.

To the information conveyed by the above discussion the following
may be added. At Eskdalemuir Observatory various seismographs have
been mounted side by side for comparison, and Mr. G. W. Walker
made very careful and thorough comparisons of the relative advan-
tages as indicated in his book already referred to. It seemed desirable
at the present juncture to have a formal report on the comparison of
the Milne instrument with at least one other; and the Galitzin seemed
the best to select as standard of comparison. Application was there-
fore made to the Superintendent of the Meteorological Office, and he
kindly sent the following report, to which the names of L. F.
Richardson and L. H. G. Dines are attached.

Comparison between the Milne and the Galitzin types of Seismographs.

It is convenient to treat the question under several different
aspects, and a brief description of the two instruments may usefully
precede the rest.

It is unnecessary to say much about the Milne instrument.
Extreme lightness and compactness characterise it, and no simpler

58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

method of optical registration could well be devised. No expensive
lenses are needed, and, with the exception of a few parts of the
mechanism, no specially high-class work is required in manufacture.
The whole of the apparatus is self-contained and does not take up
much floor-space. It does not require a continuously darkened room
in which to work. Two pendulums to record both N.S. and E.W.
movements can be installed in the same case and record on the same
drum.

The Galitzin instrument, on the other hand, is a very much more
complicated affair. It is designed to follow a somewhat elaborate
mathematical theory, and high-class workmanship and accuracy are
needed in its construction. Its pendulum is shorter than the Milne
and much heavier—say, seven kilograms. It is hung by two steel
wires (Zollner system), and has no pivot at all in some cases, Pro-
vision, however, is made on the pendulum and frame for a steel point
and cup to be inserted if required. The supporting wires might, with
advantage, be made of tungsten if corrosion were feared. At the outer
end of the boom are fixed to the frame four powerful horseshoe
magnets. Between the poles of one pair of these moves a set of wire
coils fixed to the boom and coupled in series with a delicate galvano-
meter placed in any convenient position elsewhere. Between. the
other pair is a large copper plate, also fixed to the boom, and this last
acts as a magnetic damper. The magnets can be adjusted as desired
to vary the.magnetic field between the poles.

The galvanometer is of the moving coil type, and has a long period
of oscillation when undamped. ‘This galvanometer is an excellent,
piece of work and is electrically damped so that it can be rendered
just aperiodic. With the whole instrument in normal working it is
necessary that the undamped periods of both pendulum and galvano-
meter should be the same, and that they both should be damped just
to the limit of aperiodicity.

The optical registration consists of a collimator with a fine slit
powerfully illuminated. The beam is reflected from a mirror on the
galvanometer and thence to the recording drum, where a cylindrical
lens condenses the line of light into a point on the paper.

The two pendulums for recording N.S. and E.W. movements are
under entirely separate covers, and in a more refined installation two
separate drums are also used; but it is possible to use one drum only
and arrange the spots of light from the two galvanometers side by
side.

A good deal of floor space is required, and the room in which the
recording parts are placed must be kept dark.

The galvanometers and recording drum may be placed in a separate
room altogether; and, in fact, are better so placed. The presence of
the attendant is likely to disturb the pendulum if he brings his weight
near the pillar on which it stands. The recording part of the
apparatus is quite unaffected by disturbances in the room in which it
is placed.

For a further description of the Galitzin instrument see
(1) ‘ Modern Seismology,’ by G. W. Walker, F.R.S., chapters 2 and 3.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59

(2) The catalogue supplied by H. Masing, St. Petersburg, the
makers of the pendulum and recording part of the instrument.
(83) ‘ Ueber ein neues Aperiodisches Horizontalpendel mit galvano-
metrischer Fernregistrierung,’ by Prince B. Galitzin. (4) ‘ Ueber
einen neuen Seismographen fiir die Vertikalkomponente der Boden-
bewegung,’ by Prince B. Galitzin. (5) ‘Die electromagnetische
Registriermethode,’ by Prince B. Galitzin, Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg.

The Galitzin recorder for vertical movements operates electrically
in exactly the same manner as the horizontal instrument, and a similar
magnetic damper is fitted to it. The room in which the pendulum
is placed must be maintained as far as possible at a uniform tempera-
ture, as the change in the elasticity of the spring which supports the
pendulum causes excessive wandering if the temperature changes by
even as little as 0.5 per cent.

Comparative cost.—A Galitzin installation is much more expensive
than a corresponding Milne one. Two horizontal pendulums complete
with galvanometer and one recording drum cost at least 148/., while
the pendulum for vertical movements with galvanometer and drum
costs at least 1101.

This does not exhaust the expensiveness of the instruments, since

about six times as much sensitive paper is required for one Galitzin

recording drum as for one modern Milne drum for two pendulums.
It is customary to run the paper at three centimetres per minute, and
unless the optical arrangements were improved it would be hardly
feasible to run it at much less speed without losing a good deal.
Under these circumstances the cost in paper alone of one recorder is
about 331. per annum.

Attention required.—The Milne instrument does not require more
than ordinary skilled attention. If the operator be used to handling

_ delicate instruments little more is required. Of the Galitzin instrument

the same may be said as far as the ordinary routine is concerned, but

the greater complexity of the apparatus means a greater number of
_ things liable to go wrong, and sooner or later it is almost certain
‘to happen that highly skilled attention is necessary. Both types of

instrument require periodical standardisation, but while in the Milne

_ type this is quite a simple process, in the Galitzin it is quite otherwise.

A certain amount of auxiliary apparatus is required, such as telescopes
and scales, and two persons are necessary to make simultaneous obser-

vations of the pendulum and galvanometer; when these have been
made the constants of the instrument can be determined. Prince
_ Galitzin has worked out formule for this purpose.

__ The whole process has in general to be gone through twice for each
Instrument, and it is a lengthy operation, taking probably about two
working days. A certain measure of observational skill is required to
take the necessary readings accurately, as well as a fair working know-

ledge of mathematics to deal with the results when obtained.

Tt would be possible to simplify the process somewhat more
than has at present been done, and reduce it largely to routine; but

60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

a Galitzin installation must always require a greater measure of ~
skilled attention to run it successfully than is the case with the
simpler types of instruments.

It is difficult to estimate what is the minimum of mathematical
and physical knowledge that must be possessed by an assistant in order
to maintain successfully a Galitzin installation. A working know-
ledge of algebra is essential, and probably with this as a basis an
intelligent operator could learn the rest of the routine with the aid
of computing-forms. But without a knowledge of higher mathematics,
and particularly elementary differential equations, it is impossible to
understand the meaning of the formule by which the constants are
determined.

Results obtainable.—The Milne type of instrument is very sensitive
as a mere seismoscope. With the exception of very faint movements
indeed, some record of a distant quake can always be obtained by it;
this is due to the absence of damping and almost entire absence of
solid friction; by altering the period of oscillation of the boom
it can be made particularly sensitive to any wave-period desired.
The instrument at Eskdalemuir Observatory has at present a period
of about eighteen seconds, and this corresponds approximately
with the wave periods from very faint and remote shocks. For
waves of this type the Milne instrument leaves some record of
almost any earthquake that affects the Galitzin instrument; but
whereas the latter gives a trace that approximately follows the actual
movements of the ground, the trace from the former has little re-
semblance to it. Maximum movements on the Milne record may
or may not coincide with the maximum movements of the ground:
it depends on the type of the earth movements and on the period of
the pendulum. By damping slightly, a more faithful record can be
obtained, and by making the pendulum actually dead beat a moderately
close agreement will prevail between the actual earth movements and
those worked out from the record. This can be established theoreti-
cally, but Prince Galitzin has also conducted experiments which show
that theory and practice are in close agreement. See Professor C. G.
Knott’s book on ‘ The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena,’ chapter 5,
Unfortunately the reduction in the scale of the record which accom-
panies damping renders the Milne pendulum very insensitive when
damped. For some months an oil damper has been fitted to one of the
Milne pendulums at Eskdalemuir; the ratio of successive elongations
is approximately 2:4. The results obtained are disappointing for the
reason given above.

If any satisfactory means could be found of increasing the magnifi-
cation optically even by a moderate amount, the damped Milne
pendulum should be capable of yielding good results, and the greater
simplicity of standardisation should be another point in its favour.

Turning to the Galitzin type of machine, as an instrument of
precision it may safely be said to be ahead of all others. The inter-
pretation of its records is not a very simple matter, but by those
prepared to spend the time a vast amount of information can be

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 61

obtained. The scale of magnification varies widely with different wave-
periods, being in general approximately 800 as a maximum and for
periods of about fourteen seconds, and falling off for either longer or
shorter periods.

The preliminary tremors of a distant earthquake can be examined
particularly well, and individual impulses analysed. An experienced
observer can analyse these preliminary phases from the shape and
general appearance of the record far more easily than can be done in
the case of the undamped Milne record. See ‘ Modern Seismology,’
by G. W. Walker, F.R.S., chapter 7, for fuller information on this

oint.

; It is probably safe to say that a full and rigid investigation into
the theory of these instruments has not yet been published, and the
possibilities of deducing complicated formul in that direction are vast.
The high degree of accuracy that in favourable circumstances has been
obtained in locating epicentres, using the records from a single station
only, is sufficient to demonstrate the excellence of the instrument as
at present used. It would be well to state here that, though the
Galitzin record does not represent the ground motion accurately in
many cases, yet in the case of the first movement of the first
phase P of an earthquake the movements on the N.S. and H.W.
records will be proportional to the actual earth movements provided
that the two pendulums and galvanometers are in correct adjustment
and have the same undamped period. Hence the azimuth can in
favourable circumstances be accurately and easily determined, though
to work out the actual earth movements would be a complicated
matter.

One point worthy of mention in which the Galitzin instrument
differs from most or perhaps all others is the absence of trouble
arising from the wandering of the pendulum. However the latter may
wander, the zero of the galvanometer is unaffected. The scale value
may be altered slightly if the pendulum be far from the middle
position, but this can easily be corrected from time to time. This
quality renders the instrument useless for determining slow changes in
tilt, as can be done with other types.

Mention has been made above of varying scale value; this intro-
duces another limitation. For very short periods the magnification
is very small, being about 110 for one-second period and varying
directly as the period for lesser values.

Hence rapid vibrations will leave no record, and this may be
the explanation of the fact that small local earthquakes are not
recorded on this type of instrument.

Owing to the high degree of magnification and great sensitivity,
some trouble is experienced from disturbances due to high winds,
and from experience at Eskdalemuir it would seem desirable to house
the pendulum in a small sheltered building rather than a large exposed
one. Heavy weights moving in the vicinity cause trouble, as with any
other sensitive instruments ; but the records so produced being of definite
character can be readily traced to their origin, and are immaterial if not

62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

too frequent. Occasional traffic along a neighbouring road would not
cause much confusion on the record.

A curve is shown attached giving the magnification of movement
in both the Milne and Galitzin types. It refers solely to the case

300

B00 | Galitzmadjusted ! salthat the pendulum
f and galvanometer have the same period
| of 24-7secs.and hee! damped so

|
700 — Z }
| .

as to be just aperiodic
|
600 | I al fae
x |
A]
2
Si | ——— irs —
S00 = S t - T + figs
SES |
Se

400

Magnific
continue

300

ae 4 es {ete

fon long

|
Omort, just speriodic, Undamped\ period /5secs
motion of hip af boom magmbied 6 Hmes optically _

| [Sat oa sd ati i Hai

SS
9 5 10 15 20 25

of a long-continued series of uniform waves; but it is noteworthy that
in the Milne type it cannot be applied to any other kind of motion and
may be considerably in error even one or two minutes after the
commencement of the series.

In the Galitzin type, however, the free motion dies away much
more rapidly.

VII.—Present Value of the Milne Instrument.
We may summarise the present situation as follows :—

(a) The Milne instrument is undamped, but for one purpose—viz.,
the determination of times of arrival of P and S—this does not matter.
There has been an idea that S (or P:) is not easy to read on Milne
records; but S has often been read in mistake for P, and when these
readings are counted properly S seems to be identifiable as often as P.
On the other hand, the absence of damping makes the readings of
maximum of uncertain significance.

(b) The time scale of the Milne instrument is small and its magni-
fication is also small. Both might be increased with advantage, and
it seems probable that then the times of arrival of P and S$ could
be read as well as on most other instruments.

(c) The present wide dispersion of Milne stations makes the records
of great value. Most of the modern instruments are in Europe. For

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 63

an earthquake in Europe they are distributed in various azimuths
(not quite a complete circuit even then), but for distant quakes they
cluster in the same azimuth and give no material for discussion in
azimuth (see Section VIII.). The Milne stations, however, especially
those in Australia, can supply this information.

It is clear, then, that the usefulness of the Milne instruments is
by no means at an end, as the perfection of modern seismographs
(especially the Galitzin instrument) might at first suggest. And it
should not be difficult to. extend it considerably.

(a) It can be damped effectually. Mr. J. J. Shaw, of West Brom-
wich, has done this electro-magnetically with an aluminium plate
in place of the Galitzin copper plate, which is too heavy for the light
Milne boom. At present, however, he has not obtained simultaneously
sufficient magnification to give the damping effect: damping is
chiefly of use for following the movements of the long waves, and the
scale should be big enough to show them clearly. Mr. Shaw is still
at work on the instrument, and hopes to obtain the requisite magnifi-
cation.

(b) There should be little difficulty in increasing the magnification
moderately both in movement and in time scale, though it may
not be easy to settle which is the very best way of doing it. The
experiments being made by various observers should at least give us
a feasible plan.

(c) Meanwhile if special attention is paid to getting good time
determinations, and if the films are carefully read with a lens, the times
of arrival of P and S for Milne stations should enable us to correct
the tables for considerable distances from the epicentre where the
European stations all agree and are all in error owing to their con-
gestion in azimuth. (See next Section.)

VIII.—Correction of the Tables for P and S.

Recurring to the discussion of Section IV., it was shown that the tables
for both P and S were sensibly in error, and the question arises how far
they can be corrected. The main facts are these :—

(a) The tables for small values of A are sensibly correct. This is
shown by the agreement of determinations of epicentres from Pulkovo
and Eskdalemuir, quoted by G. W. Walker in his monograph (p. 65).
From each station the azimuth a and the distance A can be determined ;
and from the two azimuths a and a, the epicentre can be determined
without reference to A at all.1_ This is a modern advance, the importance
of which is not easily over-estimated. If then the values of A determined
from the P and S tables agree (to a fraction of a degree) with those found
from the azimuths, the tables must be fairly correct. The value of A
is about 20°.

(3) But this single example may give quite a wrong impression of
the accuracy with which an epicentre is at present determined. At
greater distances we gradually lose the accordance between these stations.
Thus, on January 4, 1912, Pulkovo gives 175° E., 49°-5 N., and Eskdale-

1 See letter of Galitzin and Walker-in Nature for September 5; 1912,

64 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

muir 177°E., 51°N.; on July 9 Pulkovo gives 30°-3 E., 2°-1N., and Eskdale-
muir 33°-9 H. and 5°-3.N.; and at greater distances still the discordance
may be 5° or even 10°. The azimuths may still be good, though as the
azimuthal lines do not meet so sharply, the determination becomes less
definite ; and, moreover, it must be remembered that actual errors in
the adjustment of the booms become of greater importance. We have
nothing to set against the clear evidence offered in Section IV. that the
tables for § are in error, though since the errors there found are only
relative, we may add a constant to them all, substituting, for instance, for

Error at 15° 35° 55° 75° 95° 115°
m. m. m. m. m. m.
—0:3 —0-1 +0-1 +0:3 +0-5 +0-7
the revised values
0-0 +0-2 +0-4 -+0-6 +0°8 +1-0
so that the error is small near the epicentre.
Similarly the errors for P might be written—
Error at 15° 35° 55° 75° 95° 115°
0-0 0-0 +0-1 +0-2 +0-4 +0-6
if we determine to keep the error small near the epicentre. In this case
it seems possible that the revised tables just published by the K.G. Landes-
antalt fiir Meteorologie und Geodynamik in Zagreb (Agram) might supply
information which would determine the unknown arbitrary constant.

The errors of the Galitzin tables indicated by Zagreb at the above points
are

m. m. m m. m. m.
+0-1 +0-1 0-0 +0-1 -+0-2 +0:3
Difference +0-1 +01 —0-1 —0-1 —0-2 —0:3

The differences do not, however, remain constant, even approximately.
The present comparison indicates larger errors for values of A greater
than 75° than the Zagreb tables admit.

It thus appears that the moment is not yet come to suggest corrections
to the tables which are likely to meet with general acceptance. It seems
better to retain the old tables until a much greater mass of material has
been discussed, and the old tables will accordingly be used for the com-
parisons made at Shide at any rate for the observations of 1914. The
discussion of some 100 earthquakes should provide corrections approxi-
mating to definitive ones. Meanwhile, the best available corrections
to the tables from the material above discussed, incorporating the in-
formation derived from the next section, are given at the end of the next
section. °

IX.—Discussion in Azimuth.

If the receiving stations are arranged in azimuth (A) round the epi-
centre, then

(a) Assuming the velocity of transmission constant in all azimuths,
any error (8) of position of the epicentre will give rise to an error

c+ ecos (A — Ay)
in the observed times at the stations: where A, is the azimuth in which
the epicentre is erroneously displaced ; A is the azimuth of the receiving

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 65

station ; ¢ is the effect of the displacement (8) on P or §, as the case may
be, at the distance of the receiving station ; and c is a constant depending
on the position of Pulkovo, or other station from which the epicentre is
determined.

(6) If the velocity of transmission varies with the azimuth, then, if the
velocity in azimuth A is not the same as in azimuth A + 180°, there will
be a first-order harmonic which will be mixed up with that just written,
due to the error in position of epicentre ; and it may be difficult to separate
the two. If, however, the velocity is the same for A and A + 180°, then
we may look for a second-order harmonic to represent the variation. It
will be seen from what follows that there are no trustworthy indications
of such terms from the material now discussed. The material is insufficient
to pronounce definitely against the existence of such terms, especially
with small coefficients ; but it is apparently sufficient to discredit any
large term of the kind. For instance, Milne suggested a velocity N.
and §. sensibly less, in the case of the large waves, from the velocity
Ki. and W. (Eighteenth Report, § v). No such difference can be detected
in the velocities for P and 8.

We will first give in some detail the results for a single earthquake,
that of 1915, January 11, adopted epicentre 6° N., 117° E. The residuals
for P, when corrected for distance from epicentre as in Section IV., and
arranged in azimuth measured from the N. point round the epicentre in
the direction N., K., 8., W., are as shown in Table VIII.

We see at a glance the better distribution of the Milne pendulums ;
most of the modern pendulums are in Europe and appear in the same
azimuth-class 300°—330°. Were it not for the Milne instruments we
should have very scanty material for an azimuth discussion; and yet
this is one of the most favourable cases. The inferiority of the Milne
instrument suggests giving a smaller weight to its records, but it will be
seen that we should gain very little thereby. Taking the simple means
as in the last column and filling in vacant terms by simple interpolation
(in brackets), we can make a very rough harmonic analysis, obtaining

—1-6 + 7-5 cos (A—330°) + 2-7 cos 2 (A — 70°).

Treating the 8 observations in the same way, we get Table IX.

The material for discussion in azimuth is even more scanty and un-
certain than before ; but, analysing it for what it is worth, we get

—1-2 + 8-0 cos (A — 332°) + 4-7 cos 2 (A — 177°).

__ Now, considering the nature of the material and of the process used,
It is somewhat remarkable that the results from P and § should accord
so well in indicating a correction to the epicentre. The direction is in
azimuth 331° say, and as the azimuth of Pulkovo is 330°, it is pretty
clear that the estimated A for Pulkovo is in error, owing doubtless to
the errors of the tables. The amount of displacement is not so easy to
assess. In the above simple process we have treated all stations, at
whatever distance from the epicentre, alike. A displacement of the
epicentre of 1° will, however, alter the times of arrival of P by 16 s. near
the epicentre, by 5} s. at 90°, and by less still at greater distances. Never-

a on calculating the alterations for the actual distances, the mean
14. F

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

| F
Gain rh et o Bye ea: 0 a | 8a | i a (ees +) | e+
|
|
|

|
e+ |
6 — c+ | / 91 — al —
eT + (ore le pater 0 Ei 6 = = Ir +
“squaMngsUT aupezy (q)
9 er !
iG] —
lee ate
z+ |
| G “ie
ee-F
ese
Paste
i? oa
9 - ‘
Var —
sa e+
ots ieee 0 Tet CL y+
—.09€—.0€€ — .00€ Seni No oOFS — OIG — .08T ee 00ST — 0GI Ta 006 i. 009 = 60Ga= 00

‘aut W0Y? WayjO syuamnugsuT (VD)
(‘s008 9 10 ‘WH [.Q St 41un oy 7.)
“IT funnune ‘E161 ‘auquanda punos ynunzn ur g fo siossa fo Uor4ngrAjsiq

TIA @1avI,

nN
91 + 0 9+ (g—) és =) oa A ee | (OI—) (¢—) (0) | ¢ + Geeyy)
st 0g — |
a Ole

‘aUpLy Udy? LayjO squawn4ysUT (dD)
(‘8098 g 10 “UL [-Q SI grun ey.)
“TL Aumnuve ‘E161 ‘atquaonda punos ynunzn we g fo siousa fo Uworng?.4sig
x ; Senta : ; re “XI DLS Va, ee: . a i 7 i oy PA ig x, rene a < A bales Ber’

68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

for the different groups was found to be nearly constant at about 8 s.
Since the coefficient (8 units of 0-1m.) means 48 s., we may take it that
the epicentre is about 6° wrong. As regards direction, note that the
observed times for receiving stations on the side of the epicentre remote
from Pulkovo are too small; so that the epicentre must be moved nearer
to them and further from Pulkovo. The observed S—P at Pulkovo, viz.
10 m. 24 s., does not correspond (as indicated by the present tables) to an
epicentral distance of 83°-5, but to a distance of 89°:-5.

Turning to §, we find the average value of 1° to be about 13.8. The
first harmonic of 8 thus indicates a displacement of 48°/13 or 3°-7. We
may regard this as a satisfactory confirmation of the magnitude of the
error, which may be put at about 5°.

The second harmonics in both cases are small, and the phases are
quite discordant. We may fairly say that there is no evidence of a varia-
tion in velocity of an elliptic type.

As regards other earthquakes analysed for azimuth the following
notes will suffice :—

1913, March 14. Epicentre 11° N., 123° E., distant 82° from Pulkovo.

Of nearly same type as that of 1913, January 11, but distribution of
stations not so good. The numbers in the 30° divisions for P are

‘Mes Ti ls | Se Fate anes Wen Gai: Sie, 255 5)
and the harmonic expression is (in units of 0-1 m.)
+ 0-2 + 5-0 cos (A — 302°) + 4-0 cos 2 (A — 36°).
For § the number of stations are
1-3-0006 0 O30 2
and the harmonic expression is
—- 7-8 + 14-5 cos (A — 345°) — 4-2 cos 2 (A — 7°).
In spite of the broken nature of the series, the indication of
an error of about 4° or 5° in A is tolerably plain. The azimuth
of Pulkovo is 330°, and the magnitudes of the displacement assigned

by the P observations may be put at 30°/8 = 3°.8.
» § ” . . S73 = 6 1.

There is some indication of a second order term, but it cannot be
regarded very seriously.

1913, March 23. Epicentre 26° N., 143° E., distant 78° from Pulkovo.

The only available observations between azimuths 0° and 210° are
two Milne observations of P and one Milne of 8. There seems no
advantage in making even a rough estimate.

1913, April 30. Epicentre 50° N., 176° E., distant 67° from Pulkovo.
Number of observations in the separate groups

for P 4 2-0/0 2°)..0 0.3 13 oe
for § to AO Ot 0 0 1 2 a

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 69

Harmonic expressions
from P + 2-:1+ 2-7 cos (A — 207°) + 3-6 cos 2 (A — 73°)
from S + 0:5 + 11-0 cos (A — 235°) + 2-6 cos 2 (A — 160°)

Azimuth of Pulkovo being 342°, the mean direction of displacement
(azimuth 220° say) is nearly at right angles to the direction of Pulkovo,
and cannot be wholly explained by an error of tables. The small com-
ponent in the line joining epicentre to Pulkovo is in the opposite direction
to that previously noted.

1913, June 14. Epicentre 43° N., 26° E., distant 17° from Pulkovo.
There are unfortunately no observations of 8 from azimuth 90° to

270°, so that we cannot make any analysis. The mean results for the
other azimuths are

Azimuth 270°—300°—330°—0°—30°—60°—90°
Mean +1 —4 —2 —4 +4 0
No observations 4 4 11 2 of ll

which suggest a displacement in the opposite direction to that of January 11
and March 14, and in the same direction as the component of April 30.
The numbers for P are
ae 20” Over OF Ae oy Ale 2
and the harmonic expression is
+ 2-1 + 2-8 cos (9 — 165°) + 1-6 cos 2 (6 — 111°)
The azimuth of Pulkovo being 7°, the small displacement indicated is
nearly radial and in the opposite direction to those of January 11 and
March 14.

Hence, so far as this evidence goes, the error of S—P is about 30 s. at
85°, diminishes at lesser distances, and changes to a small negative value.
The corrections needed by the Galitzin tables would seem to be approxi-
mately as follows :—

BS lor abr abr rn45ot) Sao Gh > Tbee (Sar, 1:957)1057

s. Ss. Ss. Ss. 5. Ss. s. Ss. s. s.

Correction P= 0 0 0.6 0 —1 —3 ~—8 —15 —24

Correction S=4+5 0 —4 -—8 -—11 —14 —17 —24 —35 —50

Correction (S-P) =+5 0 -4 —8'—11 —13 —14 —16 —20 —26

Correction A=-—5 O +6 +13 +18 +24 +28 +31 +42 +52
the correction to A being expressed in units of 0°'1.

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Thirteenth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman),
Mr. E. Goup (Secretary), Messrs. C. J. P. Cave and W. H.
Dines, Dr. R. T. GuazepRook, Sir J. LARmMor, Professor
J. KH. PeTAvEL, Dr. A. ScHUSTER, and Dr. W. WATSON.

A mretrina of the Joint Committee was held in the rooms of the Royal

Meteorological Society on May 5, 1914. It was decided to allocate the

grant from the British Association towards the expense of investigations

with pilot balloons over the ocean to be undertaken by the Secretary
on the journey to Australia, via the Cape of Good Hope. An

70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

additional grant was made from the funds of the Royal Meteorological
Society to enable simultaneous observations to be made by Dr. W.
Rosenhain, of the National Physical Laboratory, on the journey via
the Suez Canal. A report on the observations is in preparation and
will be published in due course.

The report by Mr. G. I. Taylor on the observations which he made
on board the Scotia in 1918, referred to in the Committee’s report last
year, has been published in the official account of the results of the
Scotia Expedition, issued by the Board of Trade. The results which
Mr. Taylor obtained throw much light on the formation of fog and
on the propagation of heat through the atmosphere by means of eddies.
He found generally that thick fogs were associated with a large increase
in the temperature of the air in a vertical direction, while light fogs
occurred when the increase was small.

The Committee records with regret the death during the year of
Mr. Douglas Archibald, who was one of the earliest investigators of
the upper air by means of kites, and had served on the Committee
since its appointment at Glasgow in 1901.

The Committee asks for reappointment, with a grant of 2651.

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir OLIVER LODGE (Chairman), Dr. W. H.
Kccues (Secretary), Mr. StpNey G. Brown, Dr. C. CHREE,
Professor A. 8. Eppineton, Dr. ERSKINE-MuRRAY, Professors
J. A. FLEMING, G. W. O. Howe, and H. M. Macpona.p,
Sir H. Norman, Captain H. R. Sankey, Professor A.
ScHUSTER, Dr. W. N. SHaw, and Professor S. P. THOMPSON.

THE past year has been occupied mainly by the designing, printing,
and distribution of books of forms for recording observations, by the
enrolment of observers, and by the preliminary work in connection with
the observations to be made during the forthcoming solar eclipse.

I. Collection of Ordinary Duily Statistics.

We have obtained the cordial support of many Government Depart-
ments of the British Empire and of other countries. In the British
Empire the Navy has taken forms sufficient to distribute to about
120 ships. The Post Office has sent forms to nine stations. The
Government of Canada have undertaken to get statistics from four
stations on the Pacific Coast. The South African Government have
authorised the collection of statistics at Cape Town and Durban. The
Australian Government have brought eight stations into the scheme, and
the New Zealand Government and the Indian Government each several
stations. The Colonial Office has kindly circularised other of the
Colonies, and of these the following have already replied favourably, and
have had supplies of forms despatched to them :—

Falkland Islands. Zanzibar. British Guiana.
Bahamas Somaliland. Jamaica.
Trinidad. Fiji. Sierra Leone.

Ceylon. Gold Coast.

ON RADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS. 71

The Government of Norway have agreed to have statistics collected
at four stations; the United States Government at five; in Germany
the Telegraphs Versuchsamt is making observations at Berlin, and
there are some Russian Government stations likely to co-operate.

The following Companies are taking a prominent part in the collec-
tion of statistics: The Marconi International Marine Communication
Company, Litd., have already twenty-three ships at work; the Marconi
Company of Canada have thirteen stations at work on the East Coast of
Canada, in Newfoundland and on the Great Lakes ; the American Mar-
coni Company have put fifteen land stations (between Alaska and the
Gulf of Mexico) to work, and several ships; the Federal Wireless Tele-
graph Company of America have started observations at their San
Francisco station; the Gesellschaft fiir drahtlose Telegraphie will put a
considerable number of stations to work as soon as forms have been
translated, and they have the intention of establishing a small prize
scheme amongst their operators for the best series of observations. At
the Slough station the Anglo-French Wireless Company started obser-
vations which will be continued by the Galletti Company; while the
English Marconi Company are doing the like at Chelmsford.

With regard to Russia, the language difficulty was likely to prove
formidable, but the Editor of the Russian ‘ Journal of Wireless Tele-
graphy ’ has arranged that the forms be translated into Russian and
that the collection of statistics be urged upon readers of his Journal.
The Société Russe de Télégraphes et Téléphones sans Fil have agreed
that the forms, when translated, shall be used at a number of the
stations under the control of the Company in Russia.

Among private experimenters of note we have obtained the support
of several gentlemen abroad, who will doubtless have to be mentioned
in subsequent reports. There are also a number of Professors in the
British Isles and in the Colonies helping, and about sixty-one amateurs.
Of these there are thirty-six in England, two in Scotland, six in Ireland,
and one in Wales.

A considerable number of completed forms have already come to
hand and a start has been made on the analysis.

Il. Observations to be made during the Eclipse of August 21, 1914.

The central line of the eclipse passes across Norway, Sweden, the
Baltic, Central Russia, the Black Sea, and Persia, to the coast of India.
Accordingly, the Governments of Norway, Sweden, Russia, and India
have been approached. The Norwegian Government have generously
placed practically all their stations at the disposal of the Committee ;
the Swedish Government have agreed that the observations they wish to
make on their own behalf shall be made in accord with the programme
of the Committee, to whom copies will be supplied; and the Russian
Government will set a number of stations to work, but the number and
position of these have not yet been settled. The Société Russe will place
their high-power station at St. Petersburg at the disposal of the Com-
mittee, and the Gesellschaft fiir drahtlose Telegraphie is also willing
to allow two or three large stations to come into the scheme. This

72 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Company will enact that observations on the day of the eclipse shall be
compulsory in many of its stations in the Baltic and in Germany. The
Indian Government have agreed to help also. In Western Europe the
transmission of special signals is not of such great importance as in
the districts nearer the central line of the eclipse, but some observa-
tions ought to be instituted on signals in that part of the world. The
Marconi Company have kindly expressed their willingness to aid the
Committee by transmitting from certain high-power stations a few
special signals, if desired, at times to be arranged by the Committee.

Many private observers in different parts of the world have signified
their willingness to make a special effort on the day of the eclipse. It
has been explained to the authorities in the United States, Canada,
Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand, that although there is not
much likelihood of the effects of the eclipse being perceived in their
territories, yet they will be advised of the programme of the Com-
mittee, in order that they may, if they will, determine precisely whether
there is, or is not, any effect. Since it seemed important to enlist the
sympathies of as large a number as possible of skilled observers on the
Eastern boundaries of Germany, Austria, and Hungary, the Editor of
the ‘Jahrbuch fiir drahtlose Telegraphie ’ was asked, and has agreed,
to seek German-speaking observers, conduct all preliminary corre-
spondence with them, translate forms and get them printed and dis-
tributed, and to collect the forms. It has recently been arranged that a
large proportion of this work may be shared with the International
Commission of Brussels.

In addition to all this welcome assistance, we are especially glad
to report that the Board of the Admiralty have agreed to co-operate on
an extensive scale.

The Relations between this Commiltlee and the International
Commission of Brussels.

As a member of the British Section of the International Commissicn,
the Secretary was made a delegate to the recent Conference in Brussels,
and there suggested that it might be to the advantage of both organisa-
tions, especially when requesting assistance from Government Depart-
ments or Companies, or even private experimenters, that a public
announcement should be made showing that the aims of the two bodies
are different, that there is room for both, that there is little danger of
any Government or Company or private experimenter being asked to
do the same thing twice, or to favour one to the detriment of the other ;
and that if on any occasion there were overlapping, then the two
organisations should endeavour to co-operate. The International
Commission therefore drew up and passed the following resolution :—

‘La Commission Internationale de T.S.F.S., ayant pris connais-
sance du but des travaux du ‘‘ Committee for Radio-telegraphic Investi-
gation of the British Association,’’ estime que les travaux des deux
organisations ont des objets différents.

‘La Commission Internationale de T.S.F.S. se propose, en effet, de
faire des recherches qui portent principalement sur les mesures quantita-

ON RADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS. 73

tives se rapportant 4 l’émission, & la propagation et 4 la réception des
ondes électriques.

‘L’Association Britannique a décidé, de son cété, de recueillir, de
classer et de commenter les résultats des observations susceptibles de
faire ressortir les relations entre les phénoménes géophysiques et la
propagation des ondes électriques. Il entre également dans ses vues de
dresser la statistique et de faire l'étude des phénoménes anormaux et des
perturbations atmosphériques.

‘En conséquence, si les champs d’activité des deux organisations
viennent 4 avoir des points communs, la Commission Internationale de
T.S.F.S. engage ses adhérents 4 préter éventuellement-le concours le
plus complet 4 la ‘‘ British Association.’’ ’

At a meeting of the British Association Committee on May 8, 1914,
the following resolution was adopted :—

‘That the Radiotelegraphic Investigation Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science take cognisance of the
resolution adopted by the Commission Internationale de Télégraphie sans
Fils Scientifique at the recent conference in Brussels, and desire to
affirm that they. find themselves in full accord with the definitions, as
expressed in the resolution, of the differences between the aims and
methods of the researches promoted by the two organisations; while,
in regard to those researches in which the two bodies both take an
active interest, this Committee warmly welcome and value highly the
offer of co-operation, and gladly undertake to give all assistance in
their power.’

The Committee has expended up to the present in office expenses,
printing, and distribution of forms, the sum of 1441,

[Note.—The following communication was circulated to Members of the Com-
mittee by the Secretary on behalf of the Chairman in December, 1914 :—

The war has naturally had a very direct effect on radiotelegraphic investi-
gations. About August 1 last, private wireless telegraph stations throughout
the Empire were nearly all dismantled or taken possession of by military authori-
ties, while naval and other Government stations stopped all merely scientific
observing. The radiotelegraphic stations in Russia, Germany, and neighbouring
countries doubtless discontinued the filling up of our forms as soon as mobilisa-
tion began. A few stations in India, Australia, Canada, the West Indies, and
the United States are, however, still at work. In the last-named country about
thirty stations are making observations.

The Committee’s programme for the collection of statistics three days a week
in all parts of the English-speaking world and in a few other countries was
planned to embrace one complete round of the seasons. The fact that the pro-
gramme has been interrupted after only three months of really full work
diminishes greatly the scientific value of such statistics as have been collected.
Tt also implies considerable financial loss. A large batch of forms was distri-
buted to our Navy in July: in clearing for action these forms would probably
be wasted. The German edition was distributed in June. The Russian edition
also was probably distributed before the outbreak of war.

The extensive scheme of special observations projected for the occasion of
the solar eclipse failed almost completely in the countries in which the eclipse
‘was visible. A small amount of work was done in Norway and Sweden. All
the necessary forms had been printed, and some had been circulated before the
war started. The financial loss to the Committee in this respect exceeds a
hundred pounds.

74 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

The day-by-day statistics collected in the period April to July are now being
analysed. The conclusions drawn from these observations will, it may be
hoped, have some scientific value of their own, and in any case they should yield
information which may guide the Committee, when the time comes, to further
attacks on the problems concerned. A similar thought may be set down as
consolation for the eclipse failure.

In October last, at a special meeting summoned by the Inspector of Wireless
Telegraphy at the General Post Office, where it happened that the Committee
were represented by Dr. Erskine-Murray and the Secretary, the Committee were
asked to draw up for the Home Office a list of gentlemen distributed over the
British Isles who would be willing, if and when called upon, to assist the
police by acting as voluntary experts in wireless telegraphy. The police cannot
in general be expected to possess sufficient technical knowledge to discriminate
between dangerous radiotelegraphic apparatus and other apparatus. Co-operation
with the police authorities in each locality by someone possessing technical
knowledge will help to prevent blunders and may assist in detecting illicit
traffic. Accordingly gentlemen whose names appear in the address book of the
Committee have been written to, and lists of voluntary experts have been sup-
plied to the Home Office. ]

Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chair-
man), Dr. W. G. DUFFIELD (Secretary), Rev. A. L. CoRTIE,
Dr. F. W. Dyson, and Professors A. 8S. Epp1ineton, H. F.
Newatu, J. W. NicHouson, and A. ScHusTER, appointed to
aid the work of Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.

Tuer Committee records with great sorrow the death of its former
Chairman Sir David Gill, whose name has always been so prominently
associated with scientific enterprises connected with the Southern
Hemisphere. Professor H. H. Turner has been appointed Chairman
in his place.

The Secretary has great pleasure in reporting that the following
letter has been received from the Commonwealth Authorities in re-
sponse to further representations regarding the desirability of erecting
a Solar Observatory within the Commonwealth :—

Commonwealth Offices,
72 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
March 10, 1914.
Dear Dr. Duffield,

With reference to previous correspondence in regard to the estab-
lishment of a Solar Observatory in Australia, I desire to inform you
that I have now received a memorandum from the Commonwealth
Government advising that in the scheme for the organisation of services
in connection with the Seat of Government at Canberra, provision
has been made for the establishment amongst general astronomical
studies of a section to be devoted to solar physics in particular. _

Yours sincerely,
(Signed) R. Murrueap Commins.

Dr. Geoffrey Duffield,

University College, Reading.

The Committee records its great satisfaction at the promise of the

ON ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN AUSTRALIA. 75

institution of Solar Research in Australia—an end for which it has
worked since its appointment at the Dublin Meeting of the Association
in 1908. The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth has consented
to receive a deputation of overseas astronomers with regard to the
nature of the solar work which should be undertaken in Australia.

The Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hint (Chairman),
Professor J. W. NicHouson (Secretary), Mr. J. R. Atrey,
Professor L. N. G. Finon, Sir GEORGE GREENHILL, Professor
E. W. Hosson, Professor ALFRED LopGE, Professor
A. E. H. Love, Professor H. M. Macponatp, and Professor
A. G. WEBSTER.

THE grant given to the Committee during the past year has been ex-
pended on the calculation of the Logarithmic Bessel Functions, for which
it was specially allocated. In the present report are Tables of the functions
Y,(z) and Y,(z), whose significance was explained on page 29 of the last
report. These proceed from argument «+ = 0:02 to x = 15:50, at
intervals of 0-02, and are correct to six significant figures.

Some further Tables of the functions G,(x) are also included, for
varying order n of the functions. These are incomplete at present. The
Committee is proceeding with the further calculation of the functions
Mem); Ne(X), =>» ee on the same scale as the present Tables of Yo
and Y,.

The Committee desires to ask for a further grant of 30/. during the
coming year, to be allocated to this work.

Some Tables calculated by Mr. Doodson, of the University of Liverpool,
are given at the end of the report. They deal with the functions of
type J,,,,(z), where 7 is a positive or negative integer, A considerable
demand for these Tables exists at present. Mr. Doodson is continuing
this work, and it is suggested that his name be added to the Committee.
The previous requisition that a large number of copies of the report
(about 100) should be placed in the hands of the Secretary for distribution
__ is repeated, as the demand for these Tables from physicists is increasing.

Tables of the Neumann Functions Y,(x) and Y,(x) or Bessel Functions of
the Second Kind.

The second solution of Bessel’s differential equation
"y y _—
2 d? d 2 2

has been given in several forms—G,(z), Y,(x), K,(z), &c. Tables
of G(x) and G,(z) for values of x from 0:01 to 16:00 by intervals of 0-01
were published in the report for 1913.

Short Tables of the Y,(z) and Y,(«) functions defined by
2 4/
Yow) = Jo(w) -logw + (5) — (1 + 4) (5) /2!?
6)
+ (1 +4++4) (G) Fi cae

76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Yj (2) = Jy(z) logar — Io(a))z —% + (1 +4) (Z) [1!2!
& (1+4+4)(5) [21314...

have been calculated by B. A. Smith for = 0-01 to 1-00 and 1-0 to
10-2 to four places of decimals, and by J. R. Airey for x = 0-1 to 16-0
to seven places.
The following Tables have been computed from the relation
Y,,(%) aa (log a Y) Jn(@) Zz G,(2)

and verified by the method of differences.
The interpolation formule for other values of the argument are

2 3 2
Yolo +h) = [1 - s + = 2+ | Yue) + [Fate] Lie)

Yi(e ti) = [1 h_Fa- 2 bs Yi) + [= eon Y,(z).

Tables of the Neumann Cylinder Functions.

e | Ya) Yu(z) z | — Yo(a) Yi(z)
0:02 | —3'911532 —50-044118 0-76 | —0-099484 —1-569515
0-04 —3-217189 | —25-074360 0-78 —0-068482 —1-530927
0-06 —2-809980 | —16-766014 0-80 —0-038237 —1-493705 |
0-08 —2-520090 —12-620908 0-82 —0-008725 —1-457735 |
0:10 —2-294335 | —10-139907 0:84 +0-020080 —1:422912 |
0:12 | —2-109042 —8-490185 0-86 +0-048199 | —1-389144 |
0-14 | —1-951600 —7-314934 0-88 +0:075652 | —1-356346
0:16 | —1:814487 —6-435818 0:90 +0:102458 —1-+324442
0-18 | —J-692861 —5-753809 0-92 -+-0-128635 —1-293362
0-20 | —1-583421 —5:209517 0-94 +0-154198 —1-263043
0:22 | —1-483817 —4-765173 0:96 +0-179162 —1-233429 |
0-24 | —1:392318 | —4-395614 0:98 -+0:203539 —1-204467 |
0:26 —1:307611 | —4-083430 1-00 +0:227344 | —1-176110 |
0:28 | —1-228681 —3°816195 1-02 -+-0-250588 —1:148315
0:30 —1-154725 —3-584806 1-04 +0:273280 | —1-121042
0:32 —1:085096 | —3-382440 1-06 +0:295433 —1-094256
0:34 | —1-019269 —3-203886 1-08 +0:317054 | —1-067922
0:36 | —0-956809 | —3-045093 1-10 +0-338152 —1-04201) |
0:38 | —0-897355 | —2-902869 1-12 +0:358737 —1-016496 |
0-40 | —0-840601 | —2-774662 1-14 -+0-378815 —0:991350 |
0-42 | —0-786288 —2-658408 1-16 +0-398393 —0-966551
0-44 —0-734196 —2-552423 1-18 +0-417479 —0-942079
0-46 —0-684132 —2-455317 1-20 +0-436078 —0-917912
0-48 —0-635932 —2-365931 1-22 +0-454197 —0-894033
0-50 —0-589450 | —2-283297 1-24 +0-471841 | —0-870426
0-52 —0-544561 | —2-206594 1-26 +0-489016 | —0-847076
0-54 — —0-501152 —2-135127 1-28 +0-505726 —0-823970
0-56 —0-459125 | —2-068299 1-30 -+0-521976 —0-801094
0-58 —0-418392 | —2-005598 1-32 +0-537771 —0°778438
0-60 —0:378875 | —1-946580 1-34 +0:553115 —0-755991
0-62 —0-340507 —1-890861 1-36 +0-568012 —0-733743
0-64 —0-303222 —1-838105 1-38 +0-582466 —0-711687
0-66 —0-266965 | —1-788017 1-40 +0-596481 —0-689814
0-68 —0:231685 | —1-740338 1-42 +0-610060 — 0668116
0-70 —0-197337 | —1-694840 1-44 +0:623207 —0-646589
0-72 —0-:163878]] | —1/651320 | 1-46 +0-635925 —0-625226
0-74 —0:131272 | —1-609599 1:48 +0-648217 —0-604021

ON THE CALCULATION

OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES,

Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

x Yo(z) Y,(z) | Fy Yo(z) Y,(z)

150 | +0-660086 | —0-582971 || 2-68 | +0-714906 | +0-397539
152 | +0-671537 | —0-562070 270 | +0-706843 | +0-408760
1-54 | +0-682570 | —0-541317 2:72 | +0-698557 | +0-419757
1:56 | +0-693190 | —0-520706 2-74 +4+0-690054 | +0-430529
158 | -+0-703399 | —0-500237 2:76 | +0-681338 | +0-441073
160 | -+0-713200 | —0-479905 | 2-78 | +0-672413 | -10-451389
162 | -+0-722596 | —0-459710 2:80 | +0-663284 | +0-461474
1-64 | +0-731590 | —0-439650 | 2:82 | +0-653955 | +0-471327
1-66 | -+0-740183 | —0-419723 2:84 | +0-644432 | +0-480947
168 | +0-748380 | —0-399929 2:86 | +0-634719 | +0-490331
1-70 | -+0-756181 —0-380266 2:88 +0-624821 +0-499477
1-72 | -+0-763591 —0-360734 2:90 | +0-614742 | +0-508385
1-74 | +0-770612 | —0-341333 2-92 | +0-604487 | +0-517054
1-76 | -+0-777245 | —0-322063 2-94 | +0-594061 .0-525482
1-78 | -+0-783495 | —0-302924 | 2-96 | +0-583469 | -0-533667
1:80 | +0-789363 | —0-283916 | 2-98 | +0-572716 | +0-541608
1-82 | +0-794853 | —0-265040 | 3-00 | -+0-561806 | +0-549305
1-34 | +0-799966 | —0-246297 | 3-02 | +0-550745 | +0-556756
186 | +0-804705 | —0-227687 || 3-04 | -+0-539538 | -+0-563960
1-88 | +0-809074 | —0-209212 | 306 | +0-528189 | +0-570917
1:90 | +0-813075 | —0-190874 | 3-08 | +0-516703 | +0-577625
1-92 | +0-816710 | —0-172672 || 3-10 | +0-505085 | +0-584083
1-94 | +0-819982 | —0-154608 | 3-12 | +0-493341 | +0-590291
1-96 | +0-822895 | —0-136685 | 3-14 | +0-481475 | -+0-596249
198 | +0-825451 | —0-118904 | 316 | +0-469493 | +0-601955
200 | +0-827652 | —0-101266 | 3-18 | +0-457399 | +0-607408
2-02 | +0-829502 | —0-083773 | 3-20 | +0-445198 | +0-612620
2:04 | +0-831004 | —0-066427 3-22 | +0-432896 | -+0-617559
2:06 | +0-832161 | —0-049231 3-24 | +0-420498 | +0-622254
2.08 | +0-832974 | —0-032186 | 3-26 | +0-408008 | +0-626696
2:10 | +0-833449 | —0-015294 | 3-28 | +0-395431 | +0-630885
212 | +0-833587 | +0-001443 | 3:30 | +0-382774 | +0-634820
2-14 | +0-833392 | +0-018022 | 3-32 | +0-370040 | +0-638501
216 | +0-832867 | +0-034441 | 3-34 | +0-357236 | +0-641929
2:18 | +0-832016 | +0-050698 | 3:36 | +0-344365 | +0-645103
2:20 | +0-830841 | +0-066791 | 3-38 | +0-331433 | +0-648024
2-22 | +0-829345 | +0-082717 | 3-40 | +0-318446 | +0-650691
224 | +0-827533 | +0-098473 | 3-42 | +40-305407 | +0-653106
2:26 | +0-825407 | +0-114058 | 3-44 | +0-292323 | +0-655269
2:28 | +0-822972 | -+0-129470 3-46 | +0-279198 | -+0-657180
2:30 | +0-820230 | +0-144705 3-48 | +0-266038 | -+0-658840
2:32 | +0-817185 | +0-159762 3:50 | +0-252846 | +0-660249
2-34 | +0-813841 | +0-174637 3:52 | +0-239629 | +0-661408
2-36 | +0-810201 | -10-189329 3:54 | +0-226392 | +0-662318
2:38 | +0-806269 | +0-203836 3:56 | +0-213138 | +0-662980
2:40 | +0-802048 | +0-218154 3:58 | +0-199874 | +0-663395
2-42 | +0-797544 | -10-232281 3-60 | +0-186604 | +0-663564
2-44 | +0-792758 | +0-246215 3-62 | +0-173333 | +0-663487
2-46 | +0-787696 | -10-259954 3-64 | +0-160066 | +0-663166
2-48 | +0-782362 | -+.0-273495 3-66 | +0-146808 | +0-662602
250 | +0-776758 | -+0-286837 3-68 | +0-133564 | +0-661797
2-52 | +0-770889 | +0-299976 | 3-70 | +0-120338 | -+0-660752
254 | +0-764760 | +0-312910 | 3-72 | +0-107135 | -+-0-659468
2:56 | +0-758374 | +0-325637 3-74 | +0-093961 +.0-657947
2:58 | +0-751736 | -L0-338156 3-76 | +0-080819 | +0-656190
2-60 | -+0-744850 | -10-350464 3-78 | +0-067715 | +-0-654199
2-62 | +0-737719 | -+0-362558 | 3:80 +0-054653 | +-0-651976
264 | +0-730349 | +0-374436 3:82 +0-041637 | +0-649523
2-66 + +0-722743 | +0-386097 3-84 | +0-028673 | +0-646841

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Neumann Cylinder Functions —continued.

78
x Yo(x)
3°86 +0-015765
3°88 +0:002917
3-90 —0:009866
3-92 —0-022579
3-94 —0-035219
3:96 —0-047781
3:98 —0-060260
4:00 —0-072653
4:02 —0-084955
4:04 —0-097162
4:06 —0-109270
4.08 —0-121275
4.10 —0-133172
4:12 —0-144959
4-14 —0-156631
4-16 —0:168184
4:18 —0-179615
4-20 —0-190919
4-22 —0-202093
4-24 —0-213134
4-26 —0-224038
4:28 —0-234802
4-30 —0-245422
4:32 —0-255894
4:34 —0-266216
4:36 —0-276384
4:38 —0-286395
4:40 —0-296247
4-42 —0-305936
4-44 —0-315458
4:46 —0-324812
4:48 —0-333995
4-50 —0-343003
4-52 —0-:351834
4-54 —0-360487
4:56 —0-368957
4-58 —0-377243
4:60 —0-385342
4-62 —0-393252
4-64 —0-400971
4-66 —0-408497
4:68 —0-415828
4:70 —0-422961
4:72 —0-429895
4:74 —0-436629
4:76 —0-443160
4-78 —0:449486
4-80 —0-455607
4-82 —0-461520
4:84 —0-467225
4:86 —0-472719
4-88 —0-478003
4:90 —0-483074
4-92 —0-487931
4-94 —0-492574
4:96 —0-497002
4:98 —0-501213
5:00 —0-505208
5-02 —0-508984

Y,(z) x Y,(@) Y,(x)
+0-643933 || 5-04 —0-512543 +0-172467
+. 0:640800 5-06 —0-515883 +0-161521
+0-637444 5-08 —0-519004 | +0-150556
+0-633868 5-10 —0-521905 | +0-139577
+0-630073 5-12 —0-524587 +0-128587
+0-626063 5-14 —0-527048 +0-117590
+0-621839 5-16 —0-529290 +0-106591
+0-617404 5-18 —0-531312 +0-095594
+0-612760 || 5-20 —0-533114 | -10-084602
+0-607909 || 5-22 —0-534696 +0-073619
+0-602855 | 5-24 —0-536059 +0-062650
+0-597600 | 5-26 —0-537202 -+0-051700
+0-592146 | 5-28 —9-538127 +0-040771
+0-586497 | 5-30 —0-538833 -+0-029867
+0:580655 || 5-32 —0-539322 | +0-018994
+0-574623 || 6-34 —0-539593 +0-008154
+0-568403 || 5:36 | —0-539648 | —0-002650
+0-562000 || 5-38 —0-539488 —0-013412
+0-555415 5-40 —0-539112 | —0-024128
+0-548652 5-42 —0-538523 | —0-034796
+0:541715 || 5-44 —0-537721 | —0-045411
+0-534605 5:46 —0-536707 —0-055970
+0-527327 || 5-48 —0-535482 —0-066468
+0:519884 || 65-50 —0-534048 —0-076903
+0-512279 || 5-52 —0-532406 —0-087270
+0:504515 || 5-54 —0-530558 —0-097566
+0-496596 || 5-56 —0-528504 —0-107786
+0-488525 || 5:58 —0-526247 —0-117929
+0-480306 || 5-60 —0-523788 —0-127990
+0-471943 || 5-62 —0-521128 —0-137965
+0-463488 | 5-64 —0-518270 —0-147852
+0-454795 || 5-66 —0-515215 —0-157646
+0-446018 5-68 —0-511964 —0-167345
+0-437112 5-70 —0-508521 —0-176945
+0-428078 5-72 —0-504887 —0-186443
+0-418921 5-74 —0-501064 —0-195836
+0-409646 5-76 —0-497055 —0-205120
+0-400255 5:78 —0-492861 —0-214293
+0-390753 5:80 —0-488484 —0-223350
+0-381144 5:82 —-0-483927 —0-232290
+0-371430 5:84 —0-479194 —0-241110
+0-361617 | 5-86 —0-474284 —0-249806
+0-351708 || 5-88 —0-469202 —0:258375
+0-341706 5-90 —0-463949 —0-266815
+0-331617 5-92 —0-458529 —0-275123
+0-321444 5:94 —0-452945 —0-283297
+0-311191 || 5-96 —0-447199 —0-291333
+0-300862 | 5:98 | —0-441293 | —0.299299
+0-290461 600 | —0-435231 —0-306982
+0-279992 6-02 —0-429015 —0-314590
+0-269459 6:04 —0-422648 —0-322051
+0:258867 6:06 —0-416134 —0-329363
+0-248219 6-08 —0-409474 —0-336522
+0-237519 6:10 —0-402674 —0-343527
+0-226772 6-12 —0:395735 —0-350376
+0-215981 6-14 —0-:388660 —0-357066
+0-205151 6-16 —0-381453 —0-363595
+0-194286 6-18 —0-374117 —0-369961
+0-183390 | 6-20 —0-366656 —0-376164

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Neumann Cylinder Fumetions—continued.

a Yo(z) Y,(z)

D —0-359072 —0-382201
—0-351369 —0-388069
—0-343550 —0-393768
—0-335619 —0-399295
—0-327579 —0:404649
—0:319434 —0-409828
—0-311187 —0-414832
—0-302842 —0-419657
—0-294402 —0-424305
—0-285871 —0-428773
—0-277253 —0-433060
—0-268550 —0-437165
—0-259767 —0-441086
—0-250908 —0-444824
—0-241976 —0-448377
—0-232974 —0-451743
—0-223907 —0-454924
—0-214778 —0-457917
—0-205592 —0-460723
—0-196351 —0-463340
—0-187059 —0-465768
—0-177721 —0-468008
—0-168340 —0-470058
—0-158920 —0-471918
—0-149465 —0-473589
—0-139978 —0-475069
—0-130463 —0-476360
—0-120925 —0-477461
—0-111366 —0-478372
—0-101791 —0-479093
—0-092203 —0-479626
—0-082607 —0-479969
—0-073006 —0-480123
—0-063403 —0-480090
—0-053804 —0-479868
—0-044211 —0-479460
—0-034627 —0-478865
—0-025057 —0-478085
—0-015504 —0-477120
—0-005973 —0-475972
+0-003533 —0-474640
+0-013011 —0-473126
+0-022457 —0-471431
+0-031867 —0-469557
+0-041238 —0-467504
+0-050566 —0-465274
+0-059848 —0-462868
--0-069080 —0-460288
+0-078258 —0-457534
+0-087380 —0-454609
+0-096442 —0-451514
+0-105440 —0-448250
+0-114371 —0-444820
+0-123231 —0-441225
+0-132018 —0:437467
+0-140729 —0-433548
+0-149359 —0-429470
+0-157907 —0-425234
+0:166368 —0-420843

79
@ Yo(z) Y,(z)
7:40 -+0-174739 —0-416299
7-42 +0 183019 —0-411604
744 | +0-191203 —0-406760
746 | +0-199288 —0-401770
748 | -0-207272 —0-396635
7:50 | +0-215153 —0-391359
7-52 +0-222926 —0-385943
7-54 | +0-230589 —0-380390
7-56 +0-238140 —0-374702
7-58 +0-245577 —0-368882
7-60 +0-252895 —0-362933
7-62 +0-260093 —0-356857
7-64 +0-267168 —0-350657
7-66 +0-274118 —0-344335
7-68 +0-280941 —0-337895
7-70 +0-287633 —0-331339
7-72 +0-294193 —0-324670
7-74 +0-300619 —0-317890
7:76 +0:306909 —0-311003
7:78 +0-313059 —0-304012
7:80 +0-319068 —0-296919
7:82 +0-324935 —0-289727
7-84 +0-330657 —0-282440
7:86 +0-336232 —0-275061
7-88 +0:341659 —0-267593
7-90 -+0-346935 —0-260038
7-92 +0-352060 —0-252399
7-94 +0-357031 —0-244681
7:96 +0-361846 —0-236886
7-98 -+0-366505 —0-229018
8-00 +0-371007 —0-221079
8-02 +0:375348 —0-213073
8-04 +0:379529 —0-205003
8-06 +0-383548 —0-196873
8-08 +0-387404 —0-188686
8-10 +0-391095 —0-180445
8-12 +0-394621 —0-172152
8-14 +0-397981 —0-163812
8-16 +0-401173 —0-155429
8-18 +0-404198 —0:147005
8:20 +0-407053 —0-138543
8-22 +0-409739 —0-130048
8:24 +0-412255 —0-121522
8-26 +0:414600 —0-112969
8-28 +0-416773 —0-104392
8-30 +0-418775 —0-095795
8-32 +0-420605 —0-087181
8-34 +0-422262 —0-078553
8-36 +0-423747 —0-069914
8-38 +0-425059 —0-061269
8-40 +0-426198 —0-052621
8-42 +0:-427164 —0-043972
8-44 +0-427957 —0-035326
8-46 +0-428577 —0-026687
8-48 +0-429024 —0-018058
8-50 +0-:429299 —0-009442
8-52 +0-429402 —0-000843
8-54 +0:429333 +0:007737
8-56 +0-429093 +0-016293

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

Ge 9 G0 Go a0 GA GO G0 GD © G9 Op Op G0 G9
MATA AAAIRWBABWHBAHOHM

GSOOCOGOGOGOOGOGOGOGOOGOGOGOOOOOODOOSOODOODODODODDONDONHNHMNDDH
WIARARAMBAAAAATARAR RAR DOdOdDwMODHHNMDMHH EE HOO SSO OSD OOG

Yoo) | Hie w Yoo) | Xa
| |
8 -+0-428682 +0-024823 9-76 +0:152558 | +0-380212
0 +0:-428100 | +0-033324 9-78 +0-144931 | +0-382406
2 +0:-427349 | +0-041792 9-80 +0-137263 | +0-384445
4 +0-426428 +0-050223 9:82 +0:129555 +0:386327
6 +0:425340 +0-058615 9:84 | +0-121811 +0-388053
8 +0-424084 | +0-066964 9-86 +0-114034 +0-389622
0 +0-422662 +0-075268 9-88 +0-106227 +0-391034
2 +0-421074 4+0-083524 9-90 +0-098393 +0-392288
4 +0:419321 | +0:091728 9-92 +0-090536 +0-393385
6 +0-417405 | +0-099876 9-94 +0-082659 | +0-394323
8 -+0-415327 | -+0-107966 9-96 +0-074764 | -+0-395104
0 +0-413087 | +0-115996 9-98 +0-066856 | +0-395727
2 -++0-410687 | +0-123962 10-00 +0-058936 -+0-396193
4 +0-408129 | +0-131860 10-02 +0-051009 +-0-396500
6 +0-405413 | -+0-139689 10-04 +0-043077 | +0-396650
8 +0:402542 |§ +0-147445 10-06 +0-035144 +0-396643
0 -+0:399516 | +0:155126 10-08 +0-027213 +0-396479
2 +0-396338 | -+0-162728 10:10 | +0-019286 | +0-396158
4 +-0:393008 | -+0-170249 10-12 +0-011367 +0-395681
6 +0-389528 | -+0-177686 || 10-14 +0:003460 | +0-395049
8 +0-385901 | -+0-185036 10:16 —0:004434 +0-394262
0 +0:382127 | -+0-192297 10-18 —0-012310 +0-393320
2 +0:378209 | ++0-199465 10:20 | —0-020165 | +0-392224
4 +0-374149 | +0-206539 10-22 —0-027998 | +0-390975
6 +0:369948 | +0-213517 10-24 —0-035804 +0-389574
8 -+-0-365609 | -+0-220394 10-26 —0-:043580 +0-388021
0 +0-361133 | -+0-227169 10-28 —0-051323 +0-386318
2 -+0:356523 | +0-233840 10:30 —0-059031 +0-384466
4 +0-351781 | +0-240404 | 10-32 —0:066701 +0:382464
6 +0-346908 | -+0-246858 10-34 —0-074329 +0-:380316
8 +0-341907 +0-253201 10-36 —0-081912 +0-378020
0 +0-336780 +0-259430 10:38 —0-:089449 +0:375580
2 +0-331530 +0:-265544 10-40 —0-096935 +0:372996
4 +0-326159 -+-0-271539 10:42 —0:104367 | +0-370269
6 +0-320670 +0-277414 10-44 —0:111744 | +0-367400
8 +0-315064 | +0-283167 10-46 —0-119063 | +0-364392
0 -+0-309344 -+-0-288795 10-48 —0-126319 | +0-361245
2 +0-303513 -+-0-294297 10-50 —0-133511 +0-357961
4 +0-297573 -+0-299672 10-52 —0-140637 +0:354541
6 +0-291527 +0-304917 || 10-54 —0-147692 | +0-350987
8 +0-285377 +0-310030 || 10-56 —0-154675 +0-347302
0 +0-279126 +0-315009 10-58 —0-161583 | +0-343486
2 +0-272778 +0-319853 10:60 | —0-168414 +0-339541
4 +0:266334 +0-324561 10-62 —0-175164 +0-335469
6 +0-259796 +0-329131 10-64 —0-181832 +0-331271
8 +0-253169 +-0-333561 10-66 —0-188414 +0-326950
0 +0-246455 +0-337850 10:68 —0-194909 +0-322508
2 +0-239656 +0-341996 10-70 —0-201314 +0-317947
4 +0-232776 -+-0-345999 | 10-72 | —0-207626 +0-313268
6 -+-+0-225817 +0:349856 || 10-74 —0-213844 +0-308474
8 +0-218783 -+0-353567 10:76 | ~—0-219964 | +0-303566
0 +0:211675 +0-357131 10:78 | —0-225985 | +0-298547
2 -+0-204498 +0-360546 | 10:80 | —0-231905 +0-293419
4 +0-197254 +0:363811 | 10:82 | —0-237722 +0-288185
6 +0-189947 +0-366926 | 10-84 | —0-243433 +0-282846
8 -++0-182578 +0-369890 10:86 | —0-249035 +0-277405
0 +0-175152 +0-372701 10-88 —0-254528 +0-271864
2 +0-167671 +0:375359 10-90 —0-259909 +0-266225
4 +0-160139 +0-377862 10:92 | —0-265176 +0-260491

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

Y,(x) | - Y;, (x) | x
—0-270328 +0-254665 | 12-12
—0-275362 +0-248748 | 12-14
—0-280277 +0-242743 | 12-16
—0-285071 +0-236653 | 12-18
—0-289743 -+-0-230480 | 12-20
—0-294290 +-0-224228 | 12.22
—0-298711 +0-217898 12-24
—0-303005 +0-211492 12-26
—0-307170 +0-205014 12-28
—0-311205 +-0-198467 12-30
—0-315109 +0-191853 12-32
—0-318879 +0-185175 | 12-34
—0-322515 +0-178435 | 12-36
—0-326016 +0-171637 | 12-38
—0-329380 +0-164783 | 12-40
—0-332607 +0-157875 | 12-42
—0-335695 +0-:150917 | 12-44
—0-338643 +0:143912 | 12-46
—0-341451 +0-136862 | 12-48
—0-344118 +0:129771 | 12-50
—0-346642 +0-122640 | 12-52
—0-349023 +0-115473 | 12-54
—0-351261 --0:108274 | 12-56
—0-353354 +-0-101044 | 12-58
—0-355302 +0-093786 | 12-60
—0-357105 +0-086504 | 12-62
—0-358762 +0-079200 | 12-64
—0-360273 +0-071878 | 12-66
—0-361637 +0-064540 | 12-68
—0-362854 +-0-057189 | 12-70
—0-363924 +-0-049828 | 12-72
—0-364847 +0-042460 12-74
—0-365623 +0-035088 12-76
—0-366251 +0-027715 | 12-78
—0-366731 +-0-020344 | 12-80
—0-367065 +0-012977 | 12-82
—0-367251 +0-005617 | 12-84
—0-367289 —0-001732 | 12-86
—0-367181 —0-009068 12-88
—0-366927 —0-016387 12-90
—0-366526 —0-023688 12-92
—0-365979 —0-030967 12-94
—0-365288 —0-038221 12-96
—0-364451 —0-045447 = 12-98
—0-363470 —0-052643 13-00
—0-362345 —0-059807 13-02
—0-361078 —0-066935 13-04
—0-359668 —0-074024 13-06
—0-358117 —0-081071 | 13-08
—0-356426 —0-088075 | 13-10
—0-354595 —0-095032 13-12
—0-352625 —0-101939 | 13-14
—0-350517 —0-108795 | 13-16
—0-348273 —0-115596 13-18
—0-345894 —0-122340 | 13-20
—0-343380 —0-129024 | 13-22
—0-340733 —0-135645 | 13-24
—0-337955 —0-142202 | 13-26
—0-335046 —0-148692 | 13-28

Yo(a)
—0-332007
—0-328841
—0-325550
—0-322133
—0-318593
—0-314932
—0-311150
—0-307251
—0-303235
—0-299104
—0-294861
—0-290507
—0-286043
~-0-281473
—0-276797
—0-272018
—0-267139
—0-262160
—0-257084
—0-251914
—0-246652
—0-241299
—0-235859
—0-230333
—0-224723
—0-219032
—0-213263
—0-207418
—0-201500
—0-195510
—0-189451
—0-183326
—0-177138
—0-170888
—0-164580
—0-158216
—0-151799
—0-145331
—0-138815
—0-132253
—0-125649
—0-119005
—0-112323
—0-105607
—0-098859
—0-092082
—0-085279
—0-:078452
—0-071604
—0-064738
—0-057856
—0-050962
—0-044058
—0-037147
—0-030231
—0-023314
—0-:016398
—0-:009485
—0-002580

Y,(z)

—0-155112
—0-161460
—0-167733
—0-173929
—0-180046
—0-186082
—0-192034
—0-197899
—0-203676
—0-209364
—0-214959
—0-220460
—0-225864
—0-231170
—0-236376
—0-241479
—0-246478
—0-251372
—0-256158
—0-260834
—0-265399
—0-269851
—0-274189
—0-278412
—0-282517
—0-286503
—0-290369
—0-294114
—0-297737
—0-301235
—0-304608
—0-307855
—0-310974
—0-313965
—0-316827
—0-319558
—0-322158
—0-324626
—0-326961
—0-329163
—0-331231
—0-333163
—0-334960
—0:336622
—0-338147
—0:339536
—0-340787
—0-341901
—0-342878
—0-343717
—0-344418
—0-344981
—0-345406
—0-345694
—0:345843
—0-345855
—0-345729
—0-345466
—0-345067
G

82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Neumann Cylinder Functions—continued.

x Yo(x) Y,(z) | x Yo(zx) Y,(z)
13-30 +0:004316 —0-344531 14-42 -+-0-299680 —0-129889
13-32 +0-011201 —0:343858 14-44 +0-302216 —0-123694
13-34 +0-018070 —0-343050 14-46 +0-304628 —0-117459
13-36 +0:024922 —0-342107 14-48 +0-306914 —0-111185
13-38 +0:031753 —0-341029 14-50 +0-309075 —0-104876
13-40 +0:038562 —0-339817 14-52 +0:311109 —0-098534
13-42 +0:045345 —0-338472 14-54 +0:313016 —0:092161
13-44 +0:052100 —0:336994 14:56 +0-314795 —0-085760
13-46 +0:058824 —0-335386 14-58 +0-316446 —0-079334
13-48 +0:065515 —0-333645 || 14-60 +0-317968 —0-072886
13-50 +0:072169 —0-331775 || 14-62 +0-319362 —0-066417
13-52 +0-078785 —0-329776 || 14-64 +0-320625 —0-059931
13-54 +0-085359 —0-327649 | 14-66 +0:321759 —0-053429
13-56 +0-091890 —0-325395 || 14-68 +0:322762 —0:046915
13-58 +0:-098374 —0-323014 | 14-70 +0-323635 —0-040392
13-60 +0-104809 —0-320508 || 14-72 +0-324378 —0-033861
13-62 +0-111193 —0-317879 || 14-74. +0-324990 —0-027326
13-64 +0-117524 —0:315127 14-76 +0-325471 —0-020788
13-66 +0:123798 —0-312254 14-78 +0-325821 —0-014251
13-68 +0-130013 —0:309261 || 14-80 +0-326041 —0:007717
13-70 +0-136167 —0:306150 || 14-82 +0-326130 —0-001189
13-72 +0-142258 —0-302922 || 14:84 +0-326088 +0-005330
13-74 +0-148283 —0-299577 || 14:86 +0-325917 +0-011839
13-76 +0-154241 —0-296118 14-88 +0:325615 +0-018334
13-78 +0-160128 —0-292547 14-90 +0-325183 +0-024813
13-80 +0-165942 —0-288865 14-92 +0:324622 +0:031274
13-82 +0-171681 —0:285073 14-94 +0:323932 +0-037714
13-84 +0-177344 —0-281173 14-96 +0:323114 +0-044130
13-86 +0:182928 —0:277167 14-98 +0-322167 +0:050519
13-88 +0-188430 —0:273056 15-00 +0-321093 -++0-056880
13-90 +0-193849 —0-268843 15-02 +0:319893 +0-063210
13-92 +0-199183 —0-264529 15-04 +0:318566 +0-069507
13-94 +0-204430 —0-260116 || 15-06 +0:317113 +0:075767
13-96 -+0-209587 —0-255606 | 15-08 +0:315535 +0-081989
13-98 +0:214653 —0-251001_ || 15-10 +0-313833 +0-088171
14:00 +0-219627 —0-246303 | 15-12 +0-312008 +-0-094309
14-02 +0-224505 —0-241513 | 15-14 +0-310061 +0-100401
14-04 +0-229286 —0-236634 15-16 +0-307993 +0-106445
14-06 +0-233969 —0-231668 15-18 +0-305804 +0-112439
14-08 +0-238553 —0-226617 15-20 +0-303496 +0-118380
14-10 +0-243034 —0-221483 15-22 +0-301069 +0-124266
14-12 +0-247411 —0-216268 15-24 +0:298525 +0:-130095
14-14 +0-251684 —0-210975 15-26 +0:295865 +0-135865
14-16 +0-255850 —0-205605 15-28 +0-293091 +0:141573
14-18 +0-259908 —0-200161 15-30 +0-290203 +0-147217
14-20 +0-263856 —0-194645 15-32 +0-287203 +0-152796
14-22 +0-267693 —0-:189059 15-34 +0-284092 +0-158306
14-24 +0-271418 —0-183406 15-36 +0-280871 +0-163746
14-26 +0-275029 —0-177688 15-38 +0-277542 +0-169113
14-28 +0-278525 —0-:171907 15-40 +0-274107 +0:174406
14-30 +0-281905 —0-166066 15-42 +0-270567 +0-179624
14-32 +0-285167 —0-160167 15-44 +0-266923 +0:184763
14-34 +0-288311 —0-154213 15-46 +0-263177 +0-189822
14-36 +0-291335 —0-148205 15-48 +0-259330 +0:194799
14-38 +0:294239 —0-142147 15-50 +0:255385 +0-199691
14:40 +0-297021 —0-136041

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 83

The Neumann G Functions.

The Neumann Functions G,(x) of order greater than unity are of
frequent occurrence in physical problems, such as the diffraction of light,
pressure of radiation, &c. Tables of the functions have been found from
those of G,(x) and G,(x) by (a) direct calculation and (b) logarithmic
computation from the recurrence formula

Grnsi(X) a s G,,(z) i

and verified in the case when z is an integer by the relation

Jn(%) Gpii(z) — Inas(2) G,(2) =

G,-1(2)

The Bessel Functions J,,(x) for positive integral values of n and w have
been given by Meissel for 7 = 1 tox = 24

The Tables may be used to calculate G,(x) for other values of: the
argument x by employing the following formula :

G(e +h) = G,(x) +h E Cota) (2)
a al {a — 1)
gy?

- 1) @(@ + = Gn) shh

2!
Tables of the Newmann Functions. G,(«).

x= O1 0°2 03 0°4 0°5
+ 2-40998 +1-69820 -+1-26806 | +0-95194 -+-0-69825
+10:14570 -+5:22105 +3-60200 +2-79739 +2-31138
— _— — — +8:54729

Gi(z) | a= 06 07 0'8 09 1:0
n=0 +0-48461 +0-29950 +0-13635 —0-00884 —0-13863
1 -+1-97982 +1-73298 + 1:53647 --1:37150 -+1-22713
2 +6-11479 +4-65188 +3:70481 | +3-05663 -+2-59289
| 3 — — _— | — +9-14442

Gi(e) |a2= 11 1:2 1:3 14 15
n=0 —0-25473 —0-35827 | —0-45009 —0-53076 —0-60075
1 -+-1-09660 +0-97568 +0-86161 -+0-75264 -+0-64765
2 +2-24855 +1-98440 +1-77565 -+-1:60597 +1-46429
is +17-07994 + 5-63900 +4-60192 +3-83584 +3-25711

G(x) T= gA:6 17 18 1:9 2:0
n= 0 —0-66041 —0-71004 —0:74995 —0-78040 —0-80170
1 +0-54597 +0:44725 +0:35133 +0-25825 +0-16813
2 -- 1-34287 + 1-23622 +1-14032 +1-05224 +0-96982
3 -+2-81121 +2-46149 +2-18271 +1-95700 +1-77152
4 +9-19916 +7-45141 +6:13537 +5-12776 +4-34473

84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tables of the Newmann Functions. G,(x)—continued.

Gr(z) |= 21 22 2:3 a4 2'5
—0-81413 —0-81805 —0-81379 —0-80176 — 0-78237
-+0-08118 —0-00234 —0-08212 —0-15785 —0-22921
+0-89144 +0-81592 +0-74238 +0-67022 -+0-59900
+1-61681 +1-48583 +1-37322 +1-27488 +1-18761
>+-3-72802 +3-23634 + 2-83993 + 2-51698 +2-25126

— — +8:50480 +-7-11504 +6-01643
a= 26 2-7 2'8 2:9 3-0
—0-75607 —0-72336 | W—0-68474 —0-64075 —0-59195
—0-29588 —0-35756 —0-41398 —0-46486 —0-51000
+0-52847 +0-45849 | -+0-38904 +0-32015 +0-25196
+1-10891 +1-03682 | -+0-96974 -+0-90645 +0-84594
+ 2-03056 +1-:84554 | +1-68899 +1-55526 +1-43992
+5:13897 +4:43145 +3-85593 -+3-38393 +2-99385
= — = = + 8-53959
ete 3-2 38 34 35
—0-53894 —0-48232 —0-42269 —0-36068 —0-29692
—0-54920 —0-58231 —0-60924 —0-62991 —0-64432
+0-18462 +0-11837 +0-05345 —0-00986 —0-07127
+0-78742 +0-73028 +0-67403 +0-61832 +0-56287
+1:33942 -+1-25090 -+1-17206 +1-10100 +1-03619
+2-66914 +2-39697 + 2-16732 +1-97228 +1-80557
+7-27071 + 6-23963 +5-39557 +4-69982 +4-12257
|a= 236 37 3°8 39 40
ates Bee Oe remy tS = |
—0-23202 —0-16662 —0-10132 —0-03672 -+0-02661
—0-65250 —0-65451 —0-65049 —0-64060 —0-62506
—0-13048 —0-18717 —0-24104 —0-29180 —0:33914
+0-50752 +0-45217 -++0-39676 +0-34133 -+0-28592
+0-97635 +0-92041 +0-86751 -+0-81691 +0-76802
-++1-66214 +1:53791 | -+1-42957 +1-33439 +1-25012 |
-+3-64070 +3:23611 | -++2-89452 +2-60460 | +2-35728
= +8-95757 | _+-7-71102 -+6-67976 +5-82172
ee 42 43 44 45 |
0 +0-08811 +0-14726 +0-20357 +0-25657 -+0-30584
1 —0-60412 —0-57807 —0-54726 —0-51203 —0-47281
2 —0-38281 —0-42254 —0-45811 —0-48931 —0-51598
3 ~-+0-23065 +0-17566 +0-12111 +0-06721 +0-01416
4 +0:72034 +0-67348 -+-0-62710 +0-58095 +0:53486 |
5 +1-17490 +1-10715 +1-04558 +0-98908 -+0-93670
6 + 2:14526 +1-96260 +1-80449 +1-66694 +1-54669
7 +5-10391 +4-60029 +3-99020 +3-55714 +3-18781 |
8 | — — — +9-65122 | +8-37095 |

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 85
Tables of the Newnann Functions. G,(x)—continued.
Gr(e) = 46 | 47 4'8 49 5:0
n=0-| +0-35101 +0-39174 +0-42773 -+0-45876 +0-48462
1 —0-43000 —0-38406 —0-33547 —0-28470 —0-23226
2 —0-53797 —0-55517 | —0-56751 —0-57496 —0-57752
3 —0-03780 | —0-08842 —0-13746 —0-18466 —0-22976
4 +0-48866 | +0-44229 +0-39569 +0-34885 -+0-30182
5 40-88765 | +0:84125 | +0-79694 +40-75421 +40-71266
6 +1-44101 +134761 +1-26460 +1-19036 — +1-12351
7 -.2-87150 412-59946 | +2:36457 +2-16095 +1-98376
8 4-7-29834 46:39546 | +5-63205 +4-98377 +4-43101
Gr(x) TS nerd. 52 5°38 | 54 55
n= 0 +-0-50517 +0-52033 | +0-53005 +0-53433 | +.0-53325
1 —0-17866 —0-12439 | —0-06998 —0-01591 +0-03732
2 —0-57523 —0-56817 | —0-55645 —0-54023 _ —0-51968
3 —0-27251 —0-31266 | —0-34999 —0-38426 —0-41527
4 +0-25464 +0-20741 | +-0-16024 -+0-11327 +0-06666
5 +-0-67194 +0-63175 | -+0-59186 +0-55207 +0-51223
6 +1-06289 4+1-00750 | -++0-95647 -+0-90908 | +0-86467
7 + 1-82897 +1-69324 | +1-57374 +1-46811 | +1-37432
8 43-95783 43-55123 | +3-20058 +2-89712 | +2-63361
at are +9-23362 | +8-08839 +7:11596 | +6-28707
| Ga(z) [x= 56 57 5:8 5:9 6-0 /
ey | = - — aa ae ’
| »=0_| +0-52691 +0:51547 | +0-49911 +0-47810 | +0-45270 |
| 1, +40°08923 +0-13937 | -+0-18729 | -+0-23260 +0-27491
2_| —0-49505 —0-46657 —0-43453 | —0-39925 | —0-36106
3 | —0-44283 —0-46678 —0-48697 | —0-50328 —0-51561
| 4 +0-02058 —0-02478 —0-06923 | —0-11256 —0-15455
5 | 40-47224 +0-43200 -+0-39148 | +0-35066 +0-30954
6 40-2270 | +0-78268 | +0-74419 | +0-70689 | +0-67046
7 | +1:29069 | +1-21574 | +1-14823 | +1.08709 | +1-03137
| 8 | +2-40402 | +2-203835 | +2-02740 | +1:87264 +1-73607
| 9 4+5-57794 4+4-96911 | +4-44461 | +3-99125 +3-59816
ee, 10 | et. em = — | +0-05841
Gr(w) -— 2= 6% 7:0 15 | 8-0 85
| | |
n= 0 +0-27213- +0-04076 | —0-18428 | —0-35111 | —0-42444 |
1 +.0-43054 40-47543 | +0-40704 | +0-24828 | +0-04111 |
2 —0-13965 4009507 | -+0-29282 | +0-41318 | +0-43411
3-| —0-51648 —0-42110 | —0-25087 | —0-04169 | +0-16318
4- —0-33710 —0-45602 | —0-49351 | —0-44445 | —0-31892
. 5 4010159 —0-10006 | —0-27555 —0-40275 | —0-46334
| 6 +0-49339 +0-31307 | +0-12612 | —0-05900 | —0-22619
| 7 4.080929 +0-63676 | -+0-47734 |- +0-31426 | +-0-14402
| 8 4-1-24969 +0-96044 | -+0-76491 +0-60895 | +0-46340 |
9 4-2-26687 +1-55854 | +1-15447 | +0-90364 | +-0-72826 |
10 4502780 | +3-04723 | +2-00582 | +1-42424 , +1-07879 |
ll — | +7-14782 | 4419437 | +2-65697 | +1:81008 |
12 — — = | +5-88241 | +3-60612 |
13 = | = = a +8-37101 |

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Tables of the Newmann Functions.

OCMOWIMSU8H PWNS

G,,(x~)—continued.

z= 90 95 10:0 10°5 11'0
—0:39260 —0-26894 —0-08745 +0-10608 +0-26522
—0-16386 —0:31915 —0:39115 —0-36710 | —0-25715
+0:35619 +0-20175 +0-00922 —0-17600 —0-31198
+0:32216 +0-40410 +0-39484 +0-30005 +0-14370
—0-14141 +0-05347 -+-0-22769 +0-34746 +0-39036
—0-44786 —0-35907 —0-21269 —0-03532 -+0-14020
—0-35621 —0-43144 —0-44038 —0-38110 —0-26291
—0-02709 —0-18591 —0-31576 —0-40022 —0-42701
+0-31408 +0-15747 —0-00169 —0-15253 —0-28056
+0-58544 +0-45112 | +0-31306 +0-16780 +0-01893
+-0-85681 +0-69729 | -+0-56519 +0-44018 +0-31153
+1-31859 +1:01685 | -+0-81733 +0-67064 +0-54749
+2-36640 +1-65753 +1-23293 -+0-96497 +0:78344

~-+4-99180 | +3-17058 +2-14171 +1-53501 +1-16185

@2= 115 12°0 12°5 130 13'5
+0-35379 | +0-35380 | -+0-26894 +0-12285 —0-04724
—0-09102 +0-08969 +0-24165 +0-33000 +0-33619
—0-36962 —0-33885 —0-23028 —0-07208 +0-09705
—0-03755 —0-20264 —0-31534 —0-35217 —0-30743
+0-35003 -+0-23753 +0:07892 —0-09046 —0-23369 |
+0-28105 +0-36100 +0-36584 +0-29651 +0-16895
—0-10564 +0-06330 +0-21376 +0-31854 +0-35883
—0-39128 —0-29770 —0-16064 —0-00247 +0-15001
—0-37070 —0-41061 —0-39367 —0-32120 —0-20326 |
—0-12448 —0-24979 —0-34326 —0-39285 —0:39092 |
+0-17587 +0-03593 —0-10063 —0-22275 —0:31796 |
+0-43034 +0-30968 +0-18226 +0-05016 —0-08013 ©
+0-64738 +0-53181 +0-42140 +0-30763 +0-18737 |
+0-92073 +0-75394 +0-62684 -+-0-51778 +0-41324

a= 140 145 15'0 15°5 16°0
—0-19979 —0-29893 —0-32274 —0-26805 —0-15050
-+0-26177 +0-12730 | —0-03310 —0-18031 —0-27956
+0-23719 +0-31648 | +0-31833 +0-24478 +0-11555
—0-19400 —0:03999 -+0-11799 +0-24348 +0-30845
—0-32033 —0:33303 | —0-27113 —0-15053 | +0-00012
+0-01095 —0-14375 | —0-26259 —0-32117 —0-30839
+0-32815 -+0-23390 +0-09607 —0-05667 —0-19286
+0-27032 +0:33782 +0-33945 +0-27730 +0-16375
—0-05783 +0-09179 -+0-22075 +0-30713 +0-33614
—0-33641 —0-23603 —0-10398 +0-03975 +0-17239
—0:37470 -| —0-38480 —0-34553 —0-26098 —0-14220
—0-19887 —0-29472 —0-35672 —0-37649 —0:35014
+0-06218 —0-06237 —0:17766 —0-27340 —0-33925
+0-30548 +0-19149 +0-07246 —0-04683 —0-15873

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 87

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order.
The solution of the ae ee

Wz 3 +t 3 1— 7D = Un — 0
being taken in the symbolical form

uu. = a” of ( - 1 =) ae Sk Be* £.
a xe dz xe

yields as standard functions of real quantities

: A Set 18 it d\" sin
er 2 [= x an) Pit

eer 1 d\" cos a
Ol) =a ( 3 7) Pe,
x eg ae Piagt nines elie
with E,(%) = « ( i ss) aaa C" (x) — 78, (2)

as an important associated function.
The functions (KE, (x) )? = (S, (x) )?-+ (C, (#) )?
(H,’ (2) )? = (Sy! (2) )? + (Cy! (2) )?
are of importance, and have been tabulated with S, (x), C, (x), and their
derivatives 8,’ (x), C,’ (a).
The connection with Bessel Functions is apparent from the differential
equation, giving
8, (2) = V4raJ,,;(2)
C, (w) = (—1)"/E x(x) J_,_, (2).
From the differential equation, we obtain

S.! (a) = Eo? 8, (@) S3 (2)

8," («) = 8, -1(2) — 28, (@)

with corresponding formule for C,/ (a), E,’ (2).
By elimination of §,’ (x), we get the recurrence formula

8, +1 (x) = eS S, (a) rae S., -1 (x).

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order.

(EAC)?

| n Sn(1) C,(1) n
Be: “8414710 “5403023 | 1-0 0
1 “3011687 1:3817733 2-0 1
2 -0620351 3605018 13°0 2
3 -0090066 16°64331 277-0 3
| 4 -0010110 1128982
ne -0000926 999-4403
6 -0000072 10880°95
7 -0000005 140452:8
n Sn!(1) | C "(1) [En’(1)? ie
0 “5403023 | —-8414710 1-0 | 0
1 “5403023 —-8414710 1:0 1
2 ‘1770986 —5-828262 34:0 2
3 0350153 —46°32493 2146-0 3
4 0049625 —434-9494 |
5 “0005482 —4884°304 |
6 -0000496 — 6428623
‘| -0000038 —972289:0
n Log. [Sn(1)] Log. [Cn(1)] | Log. (En(yJ? | om
0 1-9250391 1:7326368 0000000 sO
1 14788098 ‘1404368 “3010300 1
2 2:7926371 *5569074 11139434 ) 9
ee 3 9545600 1-2212399 2:4424798 | 3
4 | 30047580 2-0526869 |
| Log. [Sn'(1)] Log. [Cx'(1)] Log. [En’(1)}? n
0 17326368 19250391 “0000000 0
1 1-7326368 1:9250391 -0000000 1
2 1:2482150 7655390 15314789 | 2
3 2:5442579 1°6658147 3°3316297 fags
4 36957021 2:6384387
n $n(2) Cn(2) [En(2)}? n
0 -9092974 —-4161468 1000000 | =O
1 *8707955 7012240 1:250000 =I
2 -3968959 | 1:4679828 2-312500 2
eas -1214442 | 2-968733 8828125 3
4 | -0281588 | 8922583 79:61328 4
5 | -0052703~—C 37-18289 1382°567 5
gH -0008281 | 195°5833
ie "0001122 1234-109
8 | -0000134 9060-232
9 | -0000014 | 1577786
10 | -0000001 710829'4

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 89
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.
|» Sw'(2) Cn'(2) | [B»(2)]? n
| 0 | —4161468 —-9092974 10000000 s«O
° 1 | :4738997 —"7667588 ‘8125000 =| 1
2 —— -4738997 —-7667588 8125000 | 2
3 -2147296 —2-985117 8:957031 1
. 4 0651266 — 1487643 221-3125 4
; 5 0149829 —84-03464 7061:821 5
6 | 0027861 —549-5671
7 -0004354 —4123-797
8 “0000587 —35006°82 |
9 -0000070 —331940°1 .
10 “0000007 —3478369: | |
n Tog. [S,(2)] Log. [Cx(2)] Log. [En(2)]? | ™
0 19587060 1-6192466 “0000000 | 0
| 19399162 18458568 | “0969100 1
2 | 15986767 ‘1667210 | 3640817 | 2
a | 1-0843767 “4725711 . “9458684 | 3
4 2:4496139 “9504906 | 19009855 4
5 3'7218386 15703431 3°1406862 hes
| 6 4-9180733 2-2913318 |
n Log. [Sn’(2)] Log. [Cn’‘(2)] Log. [En'(2)}? {1
0 1-6192466 1-9587060 0000000 lo
1 1-6756864 18846588 1-9098234 1
2 1-6756864 18846588 1-9098234 2
3 1:3318919 “4749613 9521642. 3
4 2:8137585 11724988 2°3450059 | 4
5 21755970 19244583 3°8489167 8
i 3'4449957 2:7400207 :
n 8,(3) C,(3) _ (En(3)P ee
0 “1411200 —-9899925 1-0000000 0
1 1:0370325 —'1888775 11111111 1
2 “8959125 *8011150 14444444 2
3 “4561550 15240692 2°530864 3
4 “1684491 - 2°755046 7°618656 4
5 “0491924 6°741070 45°44444 5
6 ‘0119231 21:96221 482-3389 6
7 “0024745 88:42851
8 “0004495 420-1803
, 9 ‘0000726 2299-593
10 -0000106 14099°58
11 -0000014 9640445
12 “0000002 725001:2

90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—19]4.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.
n Sn'(8) Cn'(8) [En/(3)? n
0 —"9899925 —'1411200 1:0000000 0
1 —+2045575 —-9270333 “9012346 1
2 "4397575 —"7229542 *7160494 2
3 “4397575 —"7229542 "7160494. 3
4 -2315561 —2-149326 4-673220 4
5 ‘0864617 —8-480070 71-91907 5
6 "0253460 —37°18335 1382-602 6 |
7 -0061492 —184-3710
8 “0012759 —1032:052
9 0002316 —6457°600
10 -0000374 —44705-00
11 “0000054 —339383°4
12 “0000007 —2803600-
n Log. [Sn(3)] Log. [Cn(3)] Log. [En(8)]? n
0 1-1495886 | 1-9956319 “0000000 0
1 70157924 1:2761801 ‘0457574 1
2 1-9522656 1:9036949 -1597008 2
3 1-6591125 “1830046 “4032688 3
4 1-2264687 “4401289 "8818784 4
5 2°6918984 “8287288 1:6574808 5
6 2:0763909 1:3416761 2-6833523 6
7 3°3934926 19465923
mm Log. [Sn'(3)] Log’ [Cn’(8)] Log. (En’(8)]? n
0 1-9956319 1-1495886 70000000 0
1 13108155 1-9670954 19548378 1
2 16432133 18591108 1:8549430 2
3 1-6432133 1°8591108 18549430 3
4 1-3646563 -3323022 6696163 4
5 2-9368240 "9283995 1:8568440 5
6 24039119 15703485 3'1406973 6
7 3°7888217 2°2656927
n Sn(4) Cx(4) [En(4)]? n
0 —-7568025 — 6536436 1-0000000 0
1 4644430 —--9202134 1-0625000 1
2 1-1051347 — 0365164 1-2226562 24
3 ‘9169754 ‘8745679 1-6057129 sa
4 4995723 1-5670102 2-705093 4 |
5 -2070622 2-6512051 7071763 5
6 0698487 5-7238037 32-76681 6
7 0199460 15-95116 254-4398 7
8 0049490 54-09304 2926-056 8
9 0010870 218-9442
10 0002144 962-1421
11 0000384 4837-302
12 -0000063 26852-34
13 -0000009 162989-8
14 0000001 1073329-

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n S(4) Cn'(4) [En'(4) n
0 — 6536436 -++7568025 1-0000000 0
1 —-8729132 —-4235903 9414062 1
2 —-0881244 —-9019552 8212891 2
3 ‘4174032 — 6924423 6537018 3
4 4174032 — 6924423 6537018 4
5 2407446 —1-746996 3-109954 5
6 “1022891 —5-934501 35-22876 6
7 0349431 —22-19072 492-4293 7
8 0100481 —92-23491 8507-279 8
9 0025032 427-2815

10 0005511 —2191-411

11 0001088 —12340-44

12 0000195 —175719-73

13 0000032 —502864-7

14 0000005 —3593662-

n Log. [Sn(4)] Log. [Cn(4)] Log. [En(4)]? n
0 1-8789825 18153410 0000000 0
I 1-6669324 1-9638885 0263289 1
2 0-0434153 2-5624884 0873043 2
3 1-9623577 1-9417935 2056678 3
4 1-6985983 01950719 4321823 4
5 1-3161007 4234433 8495276 5
6 2-8441582 ‘7576848 1-5154341 6
7 2-2998566 1-2027922 24055851 7
8 3-6945133 1-7331414 34662827 8
9 3-0362346 2-3303006

n Log. [Sn(4)] | Log. [Cn’(4)] Log. [(En'(4)? n
0 1-8153410 1-8789825 0-0000000 0
1 1-9409711 1-6269460 1-9737771 1
2 2-9450960 1-9551850 1-9144960 2
3 1-6205557 1-8403836 1-8153797 3
4 1-6205557 1-8403836 1-8153797 4
5 1-3815565 2422918 4927540 5
6 1-0098296 ‘7733841 1-5468972 6
7 2:5433616 1-3461714 2:6923439 7
8 2-0020852 1-9648953 3-9297907 8
9 3-3984910 26307141

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Sn(5) Cn(5) [En(5)} |»

| o | 9589243 | 2836622 1-0000000 0
1 —-4754470 —-9021918 1-0400000 1
2 ‘6736561 —-8249773 1-1344000 2
3 1-1491031 0772145 1-3263999 a
4 ‘9350883 ‘9330777 1-7450241 Berit
5 5340558 16023252 2-852662 5
6 2398345 2-592038 6-776181 6
7 0895139 5-136973 26-39650 7
8 0287072 12-81888 164-3244 8
9 0080905 38-44722
10 0020367 133-2806 -
11 0004637 521-3312
12 ‘0000964 2264-843 |
13 0000185 10802-88 |
14 0000033 56071-73
15 0000005 314413-1
16 | — -0000001 1893290:
n Sn'(5) | Cn’(5) [E'(5n)}? n
0 ‘2836622 ‘9589243 - -1-0000000 0 |
1 — -8638349 4641006 -9616000 a)
2 —-7449095 — -5722009 -8823040 2
3 —-0158058 —-8713060 ‘7594240 3
4 4010325 —-6692476 6087194 4
5 4010325 —-6692476 6087194 5
6 | 2462544 —1-5081202 2:335068 6
7 ‘1145151 —4-599725 21-17059 7
8 0435824 —15-37324 236-3383 8
9 0141443 —56-38612
10 0040171 — 228-1139
11 0010165 —1013-648
12 0002323 — 4912-292
13 0000484 —25823-65
14 0000093 —146197-9
15 | 0000017 —887167-7
16 | — 0000003 —5744114-
n Log. [Sn(5)] Log. [Cn(5)] Log. [En(5)]? n
0 1-9817843 14528015 0000000 0
1 1-6771021 1-9552989 ‘0170333 1
2 1-8284378 1-9164420 0547662 2
3 0603589 2-8876992 1226745 | 3
4 1-9708527 1-9699178 ‘2418014 4
5 1-7275867 -2047506 4552503 5
6 1-3799116 4136413 “8309850 6 |
7 2-9518904 ‘7107073 1-4215464 7 |
8 2-4579904 11078501 2-2157021 a
9 3-9079754 1-5848650 .
10 3-3089316 2-1247668

ON THE CALCULATION

OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

0 Ol EEE EEE EO —————
i

n Tog. [Sn'(5)] Log. [C n'(5)] Log. [En’(5)}? n

0 1-4528015 1-9817843 0000000 0

a: | 1-9364307 1-6666121 1-9829945 1

2 1-8721035 1-7575486 1-9456183 2

S| 2:1988166 1-9401707 1-8804846 3

4 1-6031796 1-8255868 1-7844172 4

5 1-6031796 1-8255868 1-7844172 5

6 1-3913840 1784359 3682996 6

4 1-0588626 6627318 1-3257329 7

8 2-6393112 1-1867653 | 2:3735342 8

9 21505807 1-7511723

10 36039080 2-3581517

n Sn(6) C,,(6) [En(6)]? n |
i ee ee -|

0 — 2794155 9601703 1-0000000 Oo |

L —1-0067395 —-1193871 1-0277778 ly.

2 | —-2239543 —1-0198638 1-0902778 2 |

3 8201110 —-7304994 1-2062114 cdl

4 1-1807504 ‘1676145 1-4222661 4

5 | 9510146 ‘9819212 1-8685981 5

6 | 5627764 1-6325743 2-982016 6

a | 2683343 2-5553232 6-601680 7

8 | 1080593 4-755734 | 22-62868 8

9 0378337 10-91926 119-2316 gr

10 0117474 29:82191 889-3466 10 |

11 0032822 93-45743

12 0008345 328-4316

13 0001948 1275-007

14 | 0000420 5409-102

15 | 0000084 24868-98 |

a6: 0000016 123080-6 :

17 0000003 6520746 |

n Sn!(6) Cn'(6) [En'(6)]? n

0 ‘9601703 2794155 | 1-0000000° oO |

1 — -1116256 9800681 / ‘9729938 1

2 — -9320881 2205675 | ‘9174383 2

3 — -6340098 — -6546141 | 8304880 3

4 0329440 — -8422424 | ‘7104576 4

5 3882382 — -6506531 | 5740783 5

6 3882382 — -6506531 5740783 6

7 -2497198 —1-3486361 1-8811792 |

8 1242552 —3-785655 14-34662 8 |

9° 0513087 —11-62315 | 135-1002 9

10 0182547 —38-78393 1504-193 10

11 0057300 —141-5167 |

12 0016133 —563-4057 |

13 0004125 — 2434-084

14 0000967 —11346-23 | |

15 0000197 = —56763-36 |

16 | 0000040 = —303346-1

17 | 0000008 =| — 1833143:

94 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n | Log. (Sn(6)) Log. [Cn(6)] Log. [E, (6)}" n
0 1-4462504 1-9823482 0000000 0
1 0029172 1-0769574 -0118993 1
2 1-3501593 0085422 0375371 2
3 1-9138726 1-8636199 0814234 3
4 0721581 1-2243116 -1529808 4
5 1-9781872 1-9920766 -2715159 5

eats 1-7503359 -2128730 4745099 6
7 1-4286762 -4074458 “8196545 7
8 1.0336621 -6772176 1-3546592 8
9 2-5778788 1-0381930 2-0763912 9
10 20699421 1-4745354 2-9490710 10
1] 35161693 1-9706139 3-9412276 11
n Log. [S,,.'(6)] Log. [C,,'(6)j Log. [E,,’/(6)]? n
o | 1-9823482 1-4462504 _ 0000000 0
a | 1-0477638 1-9912562 1-9881101 1
2 | 1-9694570 1-3435416 1-9625768 2
3 | 1-8020960 1-8159854 1-9193334 3
4 2:5177768 1-9254370 1-8515380 4
5 1-5890982 1-8133495 1-7589712 5
Gg 1-5890982 1-8133495 1-7589712 6
708 1-3974530 -1298948 -2744302 7
s | 1-0943146 ‘5781411 1:1567497 8
9 27101914 1-0653238 2-1306561 9
10 | 2-2613742 1-5886518 3-1773036 10
i, | 3-7581532 2-1508077
n Sn(7) C(7) ([En(7)? n |
0 -6569866 1539023 1-0000000 Oo |
1 — -6600470 7646869 1-0204082 1
2 | —-9398639 — 4261793 1-0649730 2
3 —-0112843 —1-0691007 1-1431036 3
4 ‘9285796 —-6429214 1-2756080 4
5 1-2051723 2424875 1-5112406 5
6 | -9652627 1-0239731 1-9802530 6
7 -5874584 1-6591769 3097975 Fi
8 -2935767 2-531406 6-494203 8
9 -1255135 4-488523 20-16258 9
10 0471029 9-651729 93-15808 10
11 ‘0157952 24-46666 598-6178 11
12 0047955 70-73873
13 0013317 228-1717
14 0003410 809-3520
15 0000811 3124-858
16 -0000180 13029-31
17 -0000037 58299-01
18 -0000007 278465-7

19 0000001 1413591- ;

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n 8,'(7) C,'(7) [E,'(7)}? 1
0 ‘7539023 — 6569866 1-0000000 0
1 7512790 + 6446613 9800082 1
2 — 3915145 +-8864524 9390815 2
3 — 9350278 + 0320067 ‘8753014 3
4 —-5419012 —-7017170 ‘7860638 4
5 0677422 — 8161267 6706518 5
6 3778043 — -6352038 5462200 6
7 3778043 — 6352038 5462200 7
8 -2519422 —1-2338585 1-585882 8
9 1322021 —3-239553 10-51218 9 |
10 0582237 —9-299661 86-48708 10
11 0222819 —28-79588 829-2033 11
12 0075743 —96-79974
13 0023224 —353-0087
14 0006497 —1390-532
15 0001673 — 5886-773
16 0000400 —26656-41
17 0000089 —128544-0
18 0000019 —657755:8
19 0000004 —3558425-
ase a Se eens ete
n Log. [Sn(7)] Log. [Cx(7)] Log [En(7)? n
0 1-8175564 1-8773150 0000000 0
1 1-8195749 1-8834836 0087739 1
2 1-9730650 1.6295924 0273386 2
3 2:0524737 0290186 0580857 3
4 1-9678191 1-8081579 ‘1057172 4
5 0810491 1-3846893 ‘1793337 5
6 1.9846455 0102885 -2967208 6
7 1-7689771 2198927 4910780 7
8 1-4677215 4033618 8125259 8
9 1-0986904 6521034 1-3045461 9
10 2:6730476 9846051 1-9692206 10
ul 2-1985243 1-3885748 2-7771497 BI
12 36808361 1-8496573
13 3-1244043 2-3582617

96 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

5 Log. [Sn'(7)] | Log. [Cn'(7)] Log. [En(? | 2
) 1-8773150 | 1-8175564 _-0000000 | i)
1 1-8758012 1-8093316 | 1-9912297 1
2 1-5927478 1-9476554 1-9727033 z
3 1-9708245 2-5052413 1-9421576 3
4 1-7339202 1-8461593 1-8954578 | 4
5 2-8308592 1-9117576 1-8264970 ies,
6 1-5772670 1-8029131 1-7373676 | 6
7 1-5772670 1-8029131 1-7373676 ee
8 | 1-4013009 0912654 | -2002709 tei tai
9 | 1-1212385 | -5104850 | 1-0216928 9
10 | 2-7650977 | 9684671 1-9369512 10
11 2-3479526 | 1:4593304 2-9186610 ll
12) | 38793411 19858742 |
13 3:3659326 2-5477854 |
nN $n(8) C,(8) [E,(8)/? mn
a -9893582 —-1455000 1-0000000 0
tl -2691698 9711707 10156250 1
2 | —-8884196 -5096891 1-0490725 2
3 — +8244320 —-6526151 1-1055944 3
4 1670415 —1-0807273 1-:1958744 4
5 1-0123538 — 5632031 ~1-3420578 5
6 1-2249449 -3063230 15943238 6
7 -9781817 1-0609780 2.082514 7
8 -6091458 1-6830107 > 3-203583 8
9 -3162531 2-515420 6-427352 9
10 -1419553 4-291111 "18-43378 10
11 0563796 8-748747 76-54376 ll
12 | 0201360 20-86154 435-2041 12
Sr 0065454 56-44356 ;
14 0019547 169-6355
15. | 0005403 “558-4850
16 0001391 1994-494

| 17 | 0000335 7668-802

| 18 } -0000076 31556-52

| 19 | 0000016 138280-1

| 20 | 0000003 642558-9 |

a a a

———ss ”——

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

1914.

n Sy/(8) Cr (8) [E n (8)? n
0 —--1455000 — 9893582 1-0000000 0
1 -9557120 — :2668964 -9846190 1
2 4912747 8437485 9532622 2
3 —-5792575 “7544197 ‘9046883 3
4 — 9079528 — 1122515 *8369787 4
5 — 4656796 —+7287253 7478982 5
6 0936451 — “1929453 -6375318 6
7 3690359 — 6220327 5231121 7
8 -3690359 — -6220327 5231121 8
9 -2533611 —1-1468365 1-379426 9

10 -1388090 — 2-848469 8-133044 10

11 0644334 —7-738416 59-88724 1l

12 0261760 — 22-54356 508-2127 12

13 0094997 —70-85924

14 0031247 — 240-4185

15 0009416 — 877-5239

16 0002621 — 3430-503

17 -0000679 —14301-71

18 0000165 — 63333-36

19 0000038 —296858-7

20 0000008 — 1468117:
nm | Log. [S,(8)] | Log. [Cn/8)] Log. [En(8)] n
0 19953536 11628630 00000000, 0
1 14300263 | 19872956 0067334 1
2 1-9486181 --1-7073058 0208055 2
3 1-9161549 1-8146570 0435958 3
4 1-2228244 _ 103837162 0776855 4
5 0053323 1°7506650 "1277712 5
6 0881165 | 1-4861797 2025765 6
Me. | 19904195 ~ 0257063 3185878 7
8 1-7847213 | 2260868 5056360 8
9 1-5000347 -4006105 8080321 9

10 1-1521516 6325697 1-2656145 10

1l 2-751 1219 9419459 1-8839098 ll

12 2:3039729 13193463 2-6386930 12

13 3-8159352 1-7516144

14 3-2910760 2-2295167

98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Funetions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Log. [Sn’ (8)] Log. [Cy"(9)] Log. [En(8)? |
— = pat es SSame. Uy
bg 1-1628630 1-9953536 0000000 0
Hee! 1-9803270 1-4263426 1-9932682 1
| 2 1-6913243 1-9262130 1-9792124 2
ee 1-7628717 1.8776130 1-9564990 3
Ie 1.9580633 | 1.0501919 1-9227145 4
Veg 1-6680872 | 1-8625639 18738424 5
| 6 2-9714850 | 1-8992433 1-8045018 6
| o% 1-5670687 | 1-7938132 1-7185948 7
eng 1-5670687 | 1-7938132 1-7185948 8

9 1.4037399 ‘0595015 0-1396984 9
| 10 1-1424175 4546115 9102531 10
eset 2-8091109 -8886521 1-7773344 a i:
eae 2-4178966 1-3530225 2-7060455 12
| 13 39777117 1-8503964
i4 3-4948071 23809678

n 81(9) | Cn(9) [En(yPF | 2
| 0 ‘4121185 —-9111303 1:0000000 0
eee | “9569212 “3108818 1:0123457 1
arse —-0931448 1:0147575 1:0384086 2
| 3 — 10086683 *2528724 1:0813561 3
ley —6913750 —-8180790 1:1472525 4
| 3 -3172933 —1:0709514 1:2476118 5
hag 1:0791779 —-4908616 1:4055701 6

7 1:2415193 "3619291 1:6723628 7
eae “9900209 10940767 2°177146 8
hie "6285202 1:7046603 3300904 9
| 10 -3368550 2:504651 6°386745 10

11 1574749 4139524 17°16046 11

12 0655808 8074134 65°19594 12

13 "0246941 1828863 3344°745 13

14 “0085014 46°79174 21894°67 14

15 "0026992 132:4848

16 -0007959 409°5447

17 “0002192 1369°179

18 “0000567 4915°041

19 -0000138 18837°10

20 “0000032 76712°39

21 “0000007 330630°4

22 -0000001 1502966-

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n S,’(9) Cc (9) [En'(9)? n
0 —-9111303 ~4121185 1:0000000 0
1 “3057939 — 9456727 -9878066 1
2 9776200 “0853801 -9630307 2
3 -2430780 “9304667 “9248551 3
4 —-7013905 “6164631 *8719753 4
5 ~—"8676491 —+2231060 *8025912 5
6 —-4021587 —~*7437103 -7148366 6
} 7 -1135518 —7723620 “6094370 a
: 8 -3615007 —6105836 “5034950 8
9 “3615007 —-6105836 “5034950 9
10 -2542368 —1°0782848 1°227334 10
. 11 -1443857 —2-554768 6547686 11
12 -0700338 — 6625988 43°90862 12
13 0299116 —18°34277 336°4581 13
14 -0114697 —54-49853 2970-090 14 |
15 -0040027 —174-0162
| 16 -0012842 —595°5946
17 -0003818 —2176-682
18 -0001059 —8460°902
19 -0000275 —34852°17
20 -0000068 —151634-87
21 -0000016 —694758°6
22 -0000003 —3343287-
n Log. [Sn(9)] Log. [Cn(9)] Log. [En(9)]? n
0 1-6150221 1-9595804 0:0000000 0
1 19808761 1-4925953 -0053288 1
2 2-9691584 -0063623 -0163683 2
3 -0037484 1-4029014 “0339688 3
4 1-8397 137 1:9127952 “0596590 4
5 1°5014608 0297698 -0960795 5
6 “0330930 1-6909590 "1478524 6
7 0939534 1°5586235 +2233305 G
8 1:9956444 -0390477 -3378876 8
9 1-7983192 -2316378 5186329 9
10 15274431 ‘3987471 -8052796 10
11 1-1972113 “6169504 1°2345289 11
12 2-8167769 -9070959 1°8142206 12
13 23925925 1:2621811 2°5243630 13
14 39294886 1:6701692 3°3403384 14
15 3:4312382 2-1221659
16 4:9008836 26123012

100 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.
Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Log. [Sn’(9)] | Log. [€n'(9)] Log. [En’(9)]? n
0 1-9595804 16150221 “0000000 0
1 1-4854289 1-9757408 1:9946719 1
2 1-9901701 29313568 1:9836401 2
3 1°3857457 1:9687008 1:9660737 3
4 1°8459599 1:7899070 1-9405042 4
5 19383441 13485112 19044943 5
6 1 6043974 18714038 18542069 6
7 1-0551940 18878209 1-7849288 7
8 1:5581092 17857452 1:7019951 8
9 15581092 17857452 1:7019951 9
10 14052385 "0327335 ‘0889627 10
11 1:1595242 “4073515 ‘8160879 11
12 2'8453076 ‘8212507 16425498 12
13 24758399 1:2634649 2-5269309 13
14 2:0595528 1°7363848

15 3°6023493 22405896 -

16 3°1086340 2°7749508

n S (10) Cn(10) (En (10)}? n
i) —-5440211 —*8390715 - 10000000 |. 0
1 "7846694 —"6279283 1:0100000 1
2 7794219 “6506930 1:0309000 2
3 —"3949584 ‘9532748 1:0647250 3
4 —1:0558929 "0165993 1:1151852 4
5 —+5553451 —*9383354 1:1888816 5
6 “4450132 —1:0487683 1:2979516 6
7 1:1338623 —'4250633 1:4663225 7
8 1:2557802 -4111733 1°7460475 8
9 1:0009641 1°1240579 2°265235 9

10 6460515 1°7245367 3°391409 10

11 *3557441 2-497469 6°363907 11

12 “1721600 4:019643 16°18716 12

13 0746558 7:551637 57:03279 13

14 -0294108 16°36978 267:9704 14

15 ‘0106354 39°92072 1593-663 15

16 -0035590 107°3844

17 -0011094. 314-4480

18 “0003239 993-1834

19 -0000890 3360°331

20 -0000231 1211211

21 “0000057 46299°30_

22 -0000013 1869749

23 “0000003 795087'8

OCowtooirwnwe ©

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

Sn’(10) C ’(10)
—*8390715 5440211
—*6224881 —*7762787

"6287850 —°7580669
*8979095 *3647106
0273987 "9466351
—'7782203 4857670
— 8223531 —*3090745
—"3486904 —*7512239
*1292381 —‘7540019
*3549126 —°6004788
3549126 —'6004788
*2547330 —1-0226794
*1491522 —2°326102
0751074 —5°797486
0334807 — 15°36605
"0134576 —43°51130
“0049410 — 131-8944
“0016730 —427°1771
“0005264 — 1473-282
0001549 —5391-445
0000428 —20863°88
“0000112 —85116°43
“0000028 —365045°5
*0000007 —1641727-

101

omartornr wn KH ©

Log. [Sn(10)]

1-7356158
1:8946867
1-8917726
1°5965514
0°0236199
1°7445630
1:6483729
"0545604
0989136
“0004185
1:8102671
1°5511378
1:2359323
2:8730639°
2°4685065
9°0267549
3°5513330 -
30450910

Log. [C,(10)]

1-9237990
1-7979100
1:8133761
19792181
22200898
1:9723581
0:0206795
1:6284536
1:6140292
0:0507886
0:2366724
0°3975001
0°6041873
0°8780411
1:2140428
1:6011983
20309414
2°4975488

[En’'(10)]? n
1-0000000 0
-9901000 1
*9700360 2
"9392552 3
"8968684 4
8415964 | 5
°7717916 6
*6859223 7
*56852213 8
-4865378 9
*4865378 10
1110762 | 11
5°432996 12
33°61647 13
236°1167 14
1893°233 15
Log. [En(10)]? Nn
“0000000 0
*0043214 1
*0132165 2
*0272375 3
0473370 4
‘0751386 5
-1132584 6
*1662294 uf
*2420560 8
*3551134 9
*5303798 10
*8037238 11
1:2091707 12
1°7561246 13
2°4280865 14
3°2023961 15

102 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—-1914™

Bessel Functions of Half-integral Order—continued.

n Log. [Sn'(10)] Log. [Cn'(10)] Log. [En’(10)]? n
apa 1-9237990 1:7356158 “0000000 0
ld 1-7941311 1°8900177 1-9956791 1

2 1°7985024 1°8797075 1:9867879 7

3 1-9532326 15619484 1:9727835 3)

4 2-4377299 1:9761826 1:9527289 4

5 1°8911026 1°6864279 1:9251039 5

6 19150583 1-4900631 1-8875001 6

7 15424400 18757693 18362748 7

8 1-1113905 1°8773724 1:7673201 8

9 15501214 17784977 | 1°6871163 9

10 1°5501214 1:7784977 1-6871163 10 |

11 1:4060852 0:0097396 | "0456210 11
| 2 1'1736296 ‘3666287 -7350394 12 |

13 28756827 7632397 1°5265521 13 |

14 2°5247951 1:1865623 23731267 14 |

15 2:1289691 1°6386021 3°2772041 15

16 3°6938116 2°1202264

17 32235085 26306079

Binary Canon.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lt.-Col.
ALLAN CUNNINGHAM, R.E. (Chairman), Prof. A. E. H. Love
(Secretary), and Major P. A. MacMaunon, appointed for
Disposing of Copies of the Binary Canon by presentation to
Mathematical Societies.

THe Committee have sent out fifty-eight copies of the above work

to representative Mathematical Societies at home and abroad (thirteen

and forty-five respectively) at a cost of 41. 9s., as per enclosed account,
and return now the unexpended balance of eleven shillings.

Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. EK. ArMstTronG (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry
(Secretary), Professor SypNEY Youne, Dr. C. H. Derscu,
Dr. J. J. Doppiz, and Dr. M. O. Forster. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)

Anomalous Rotatory Dispersion.

Durine the year much justification has been found for the view
expressed in the Report presented at Birmingham ‘ that a knowledge
of the phenomena of dynamic isomerism is essential for the interpreta-
tion of optical rotation, especially in the case of liquids which show
anomalous rotatory dispersion,’ and that ‘the study of rotatory

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 1038

dispersion will open up a new and fruitful field for the investigation of
dynamic isomerism.’ The importance of this aspect of the subject is
shown by the conspicuous part which it played in a general discussion
on ‘Optical Rotatory Power,’ held before the Faraday Society on
March 27, 1914, to which the Chairman and Secretary of this Com-
mittee contributed papers. Preliminary experiments, which will he
described in a subsequent Report, have shown (1) that ethyl tartrate,
the typical example of anomalous rotatory dispersion, is probably a
mixture, and (2) that nitrocamphor, the typical example of dynamic
isomerism, gives rise to anomalous rotatory dispersion in certain
solvents.

Dynamic Isomerism, Metamerism, Tautomerism, and. Desmotropy.

Attention has recently been directed (Proc. Chem. Soc., April 4,
1914) to the importance of maintaining strict accuracy in the use of
terms to describe the phenomena of reversible isomeric change.

Briefly, it may be said that all the essential facts in reference to
the conception of equilibrium between isomerides are set out in
Butlerow’s classical, but almost forgotten, paper, ‘ Ueber Isodibutylen ’
(Annalen, 1877, 189, 44). The name dynamic isomerism was intro-
duced in 1899 (Trans. Chem. Soc., 75, 235) as a paraphrase of Butle-
row’s description of ‘ a condition of equilibrium depending on incessant
isomeric change ’; but the adjective isodynamic had already. been sug-
gested by Armstrong in 1889 (Watts’ Dictionary, ‘Isomerism’) to
describe those isomerides ‘which change their type with exceptional
facility in the course of chemical interchanges.’ The word metameric
had been used in this sense in 1833 by Berzelius to describe isomerides
which were readily converted into one another, but the usefulness of
‘the word was destroyed by a misguided attempt to transfer it to another
usage.

The hypothesis of tautomerism was introduced by Laar in 1885
(Ber. 18, 648; 19, 730) to account for the facts which had already (as
time has shown) been explained adequately by Butlerow. Laar asserts
that, in every case of tautomerism, the different formule. suggested
by the reactions of the substance represent, ‘ not isomeric, but identical
bodies ’; the term cannot, therefore, be applied to any case of isomer-
ism, however readily the isomerides may be converted into one another.

It is impossible to say whether tautomerism exists; but it has at
least been proved by the work of Knorr that the two substances repre-
‘sented by the formule

CH,:CO:CH,:CO,Et and CH,:C(OH) :CH:CO,Et

are not tautomeric, but have a real existence as well-defined isomeric
compounds, which only change into one another under definite physical
and chemical conditions.

. The word desmotropy was introduced by Jacobson (Ber. 1887, 20,
1732, footnote; 1888, 21, 2628, footnote) in 1887, when it had become
evident that Laar’s theory of tautomerism had broken down in the
very case to which it had been most frequently applied, namely, the
labile isomerism which results from the contiguity of a double bond
and an acidic hydrogen atom. Jacobson considered ‘that the known

104 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

forms of such compounds are to be represented by a definite grouping
of atoms, which in certain reactions passes over into an isomeric group-
ing by a rearrangement of bonds consequent upon the displacement
of a hydrogen atom ’; it was to express this view that the word ‘ desmo-
tropy’ was introduced. If used in this sense, to describe the labile
isomerism produced by the mobility of a hydrogen atom, it might be
of real value; unfortunately the meaning of the word was tampered
with by Hantzsch and Hermann (Ber. 1887, 20, 2802), and, as an
inevitable consequence, it has become ambiguous, and has ceased to
be clearly significant.

Nearly all the cases to which the word ‘ tautomerism’ has been
misapplied in recent years are examples of isomerism pure and simple,
the only special feature being the fact that the isomerides can be
conyerted into one another with greater or less ease. It is therefore
very rarely necessary to use any other words than ‘ isomerism’ and
‘isomeric change’ to describe the phenomena. Isomeric compounds
which owe their lability to a mobile hydrogen atom might well be
distinguished as ‘ desmotropic ’ but for the ambiguity arising from the
ill-advised action of Hantzsch in attempting to extend the meaning of
this term. At the present time the least ambiguous phrase that can
be used to distinguish ethyl acefoacetate and its allies from the very
much larger group of substances which exhibit ‘ dynamic isomerism ’
or reversible isomeric change is to refer to them as examples of ‘ keto-
enol ’ isomerism, and in other cases to use some similar specific name,
describing the nature of the two compounds between which a condition
of equilibrium may exist.

Isomeric Halogen-derivatives of Camphor.

Another fruitful, though expensive, line of research has been opened
out during the year by applying the process of dynamic isomerism to
the preparation. of new halogen-derivatives of camphor. A new
isomeride has been prepared from a-chlorocamphor by acting on it
with alkali, in order to produce a condition of dynamic isomerism in
the liquid, and then arresting the isomeric change by the addition of
acid. On freezing the alcoholic solution, most of the original substance
erystallises out,.and the mother-liquor contains the isomeric a-chloro-
camphor. This melts at 117° (instead of 94°) and has [a],+41°
(instead of +970). As the new compound can be prepared readily
on a large scale, it promises to be of great value in studying the type
of dynamic isomerism in which a catalvtic agent must be added
deliberately in order to bring about a condition of equilibrium between
isomers. The whole series of compounds which is now under investi-
gation will provide valuable data for the study of dynamic isomerism
and rotatory dispersion, and for the elucidation of the crystallographic
structure of the camphor molecule.

The Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of £40. An
increased grant is asked for to cover the heavy cost of the organic
preparations referred to in the last section of the Report.

ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AROMATIC NITROAMINES. 105

The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied
Substances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene
Derwatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor F. S. Krippina (Chairman), Professor K. J. P.
Orton (Secretary), Dr. S. RuHEMANN, and Dr. J. T.
HEWITT.

The Acetylation of Anilines by Acetic Anhydride in the presence of
Catalysts.

(With W. H. Gray, M.Sc.)

TuE accelerating action of catalysts on the interaction of acetic anhy-
dride and hydroxy- groups has long been known: it was first observed
by Franchimont' in the acetylation of cellulose, and was later noted
by numerous observers.?,_ That catalysts had a similar effect in the
action of acetic anhydride on the amino- group seems, however, to
have been overlooked until Smith and Orton* made the discovery that
negatively di-ortho- substituted anilines, such as s-tribromoaniline, can
be acetylated at great speed at the ordinary temperature in the presence
of sulphuric and other acids.

Such anilines are particularly suitable for such an investigation as
they react very slowly indeed with acetic anhydride at the ordinary
temperature, and at higher temperature mainly yield diacetyl deriva-
tives, Ar-NAc,; in the presence of a catalyst at low temperatures they
yield, on the other hand, the monoacetyl derivative. Anilines with
one ortho- position unoccupied form monoacetyl derivatives with such
extreme ease that the presence of an acid is of no advantage, but, on the
contrary, inhibits the reaction, most probably by forming stable salts
which do not react with acetic anhydride.

Such salts as sodium acetate have long been known as catalysts of
the acetylation of phenols. We have found that various salts have
a similar effect in the case of amines. Ferric salts are as pre-eminent
in this capacity as in the bromination of acetic anhydride and other
compounds, which we are investigating.

An early attempt (Smith and Orton, loc. cit.) to throw light on the
mechanism of such catalyses, using s-tribromophenol, demonstrated
that acids varied greatly in catalytic effect; that the change was a re-
action of the second order; that the speed was proportional to the
concentration of the catalyst.

To follow quantitatively the interaction of acetic anhydride and a
di-ortho negatively substituted aniline has proved a very difficult
matter. The small capacity for forming salts, which is an advantage
in following the effect of acid catalysis on acetylation, is a barrier to
the estimation of unchanged aniline by the diazo- method. Moreover,
the slowness with which the anilide is hydrolysed equally prevents
estimation of the extent of acetylation.

1 Compt. rend., 1879, 89, 711.

2 Skraup, Monatsh. 1898, 19, 458; Freyss, Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1899, 44;
J. Thiele, Ber. 1898, 81, 1249; O. Stillich, Ber. 1903, 36, 3115; 1905, 38, 124;
J. Boeseken, Recueil des Trav. Chim., 1911, $1, 350.

5 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1908. 98, 1243 ; 1909. 95, 1060.

106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

A most excellent method has now been devised for determining the
amount of unchanged aniline. This consists in stopping the reaction
‘by adding anhydrous sodium acetate, equivalent to the acid catalyst,
followed by some excess of an acetic acid solution of nitric acid. The
aniline is rapidly and quantitatively converted into a nitroamine
(Ortont; W. H. Gray*). The nitroamine is completely extracted
from the diluted solution by shaking three times with chloroform, and
its quantity measured by titration of its alcoholic solution with baryta.
The composition of the system could also be checked by direct, estima-
tion of the remaining acetic anhydride by the method devised by Orton
and M. G. Edwards,* and amplified by Orton and Marian Jones.”
The amount of anhydride found at a given period of the reaction corre-
sponded well with that calculated from the initial concentration on
the assumption that the loss of anhydride was solely due to acetylation.
The accuracy and the refinements of this method of analysing the
system are mainly due to the exhaustive experiments of Mr. W. H.
Gray ® on the stability of nitric acid in acetic acid ‘solution and allied
problems. The error in the estimation of the nitroamine in an acetic
acid solution is not above + per cent., whilst the error in the determina-
tion of the aniline by conversion into nitroamine falls below 1 per cent.

The velocity coefficients for a reaction of the second order are re-

markably constant, in spite of the canteens and intricate analyses
by which they are obtained.

Illustrations of the results are given in the following table :—
Exp. A. Initial concentrations :—s- tribromoaniline, 0°04; acetic anhy-
dride 0°04 x 3°83; H,SO,=M/363°8. ~

Percentage aniline

Time from mixing. acetylated. Kn.
Min.

41 17-52 0-031

86 31:5 0-030

146 48-14 0:031

240 69-92 0-037

Exp. B. s-tribromoaniline, 0°02; acetic anhydride, 0°02 x 7:08;
H,SO,=M/363'8.

Min. .
66 38:19 0-053

157 69-65 0-069

283 90-05 0-064.

Exp. C. s-fribromoaniline, 0°02; acetic anhydride, 0:02 x 7:08;
11,80,=M/727°6.

Min.
40 17-25 0-032
87 28-55 0-026
142 40:3 0-025
240 61:3 0-028

Since in the presence of sulphuric acid the anhydride is immediately

4 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1902, 81, 490.
5 Thesis submitted to the University of Wales, 1914.
6 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1911, 99, 1181.
7 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1912, 101, 1716.
8 Loc. cit., and Analyst, 1912, 37, 303.

ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AROMATIC NITROAMINES. 107

hydrolysed by water in the acetic acid medium, the initial concentration
was arrived at by deducting an amount equivalent to the water from
the anhydride used.

The experiments have led to some very interesting results :—

1. The reaction is of the second order; the value of the expression,
1 x
t ‘ (a—2)

2. The speed is approximately proportional to the concentration of
the catalyst when the concentrations of the aniline and anhydride are
kept constant.

3. A very remarkable effect was produced by variation of the
concentration of the aniline, when anhydride and catalyst are kept
constant. It would be expected that the speed of acetylation would fall
on decreasing the concentration of the aniline; on the contrary, how-
ever, the speed increases. A comparison of experiments A and B
shows that on halving the concentration of the aniline the speed is
roughly doubled. The most obvious explanation of the observation
is that the acid catalyst is partly combined with the aniline. Such a
balanced action would follow the equation of equilibrium :—

[Aniline] [H,SO,] = K [anilinium salt}.
[H,SO,]= K {anilinium salt]

[aniline ]

, is approximately halved by doubling the dilution.

Since the proportion of the acid, and therefore of the salt, is very
small in comparison with that of the aniline in these systems, the
concentration of the acid is roughly inversely proportional to that of
the aniline. The concentration of the free acid (or perhaps acid salt)
is the dominant factor in the reaction, and hence the effect (if there
be one) of the decrease of the aniline is completely concealed. This
suggestion 1s made more probable by the effect of simultaneous reduc-
tion of the concentration of both acid and aniline; the velocity of acety-
lation is scarcely changed (Exp. C). It appears, then, that the speed
of acetylation is independent (within certain limits) of the concentra-
tions of the acid and aniline, provided that these quantities remain in
the same ratio.

The action of the catalyst probably lies, as has been frequently
suggested, in producing an ‘ active modification’ of the acetic anhy-
dride, which alone reacts with the aniline. The evidence, so far as it
goes, points to the reaction of the anhydride and catalyst being momen-
tary, whilst that of the ‘ active ’ form and the aniline is a time reaction.
Too much stress cannot be put upon the fact that the reaction was of
the second order, for the excess of anhydride was considerable. The
combination of the acid with the aniline, moreover, obscures the issue,
and renders a decision difficult with an acid catalyst.

A complete account of this research will be published in one of
the usual chemical journals.

108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE—1914.

The Study of Plant Enzymes, particularly with relation to
Oxidation.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. A. D. Hatut (Chairman), Dr. E. F. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Professor H. E. Armstronc, Professor F.
KEEBLE, and Dr. E. J. RUSSELL.

Work is being continued along the lines indicated in former reports.

The further investigation of the distribution of oxydases (per-
oxydase) in the flowers of Primula sinensis has led to the discovery
that in certain white-flowered races which breed true to whiteness
the peroxydase has a definite zonal distribution. Such white-flowered
races, when crossed with coloured forms, yield in the F, generation
a certain number of plants having flowers which exhibit a colour pattern
of a similar zonal character. Hence this pattern may be referred to
a lack of uniformity in distribution of the peroxydase constituent of
the colour-forming mechanism, not of the chromogen. This investiga-
tion has involved the study of a large number of plants of known
genetic constitution and of their progeny; it may be expected that
eventually it will throw light on the phenomena of flaking and colour
pattern in flowers.

Concurrently with the study of the distribution of oxydases in
plants, the occurrence of reductases has also been investigated, using
this term as a general expression for substances which exert a re-
ducing action. After many trials, partial success has been achieved
by the discovery of agents indicative of such compounds, and evidence
of the zonal distribution of reductases has been obtained.

A general summary of the bearing of chemical observations on
genetic constitution and the relation of enzymes to colour inheritance
in plants was given before the Linnean Society in March, when it
was particularly pointed out that, in life, interaction takes place
between substances in pairs, the one being oxidised and the other
reduced. Consequently the same interaction is often recorded whether
oxydase or reductase be indicated by the agent used. This conception
materially simplifies the study of the oxidative changes in plants.

The formation of red pigments from yellow flowers by reduction
and subsequent oxidation described in the last report has been further
studied during the year. To elucidate the precise nature of the change
by working with material of known structure, the experiments were
extended to quercetin, which has been reduced under a variety of
conditions. As a rule, colourless compounds are formed which become
red on exposure to the air or on the addition of hydrogen peroxide.
The problem has been investigated independently at Reading by
A. EK. Everest (‘The Production of Anthocyanins and Anthocyanidins,’
Proc. Roy. Society, 1914, 87 B. 144), who finds that the change from
yellow to red may be effected by reduction alone, and that reduction
takes place quite readily without the occurrence of hydrolysis. As
Willstatter has now directed his attention to the chemical structure
of the anthocyanic class of pigments, it is not proposed to continue
the research in this direction.

A study has been made of the rate at which various carbohydrate
solutions are able to decolourise methylene blue in alkaline solution,

ON THE STUDY OF PLANT ENZYMES. 109

as this method is of value in discriminating between glucose and
fructose (compare Muster and Woker, Pfliigers Archiv, 1913, 155, 92).
On adding a féw drops of methylene blue to a freshly prepared solution
containing one per cent. of the carbohydrate, together’ with half of one
per cent. of solution of sodium hydroxide, the blue color is almost
immediately discharged in presence of fructose, but only after a certain
interval—15 minutes—by glucose. After standing, the glucose solu-
tion acts much more rapidly, whereas the fructose is less active than
at first. Most probably the active agent is the enolic form common
to both sugars; as Lobry de Bruyn was the first to show, this is
formed from both by the action of alkali. |The possibility of the
formation of fructose from glucose and vice versa in this manner in
the plant must not be overlooked. The methylene blue test has been
applied to a number of carbohydrates, so as to compare their rela-
tive rates of enolisation. Indigo-blue solution, which changes from
green to red, and finally to yellow, as it is reduced, is an equally
sensitive agent. In all cases, agitation with air restores the colour;
the colour is not destroyed in faintly acid solution.

The behaviour of lipase has been further studied during the year.
It has been shown that synthesis takes place under the influence of
the enzyme to the greatest extent in the absence of all but traces
of water, and that the presence of even ‘a small proportion of water
greatly favours action in the reverse direction.!

In view of the presence of ammonia in the nodular growths appear-
ing on the roots of Leguminose, it appeared probable that
the enzyme urease would be found in these. It has been detected
in the nodules from Lupins and a number of other Leguminosae.
Attempts to detect the enzyme in organisms cultivated from the
nodules have thus far been attended with negative results.

Mr. Benjamin, working at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College,
near Sydney, Australia, has detected urease in nodules from several
Australian plants, including wattles; also on tubercles derived from
the Cycad Macrozamia spiralis. He has found urease also in the seeds
of Abrus precatorius.

Correlation of Crystalline Form with Molecular Structure.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. J. PoPr
(Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMsTRONG (Secretary), Mr.
W. BarLow and Professor W. P. WYNNE.

Tue following communications have been made to the Royal Society
during the year :—

Morphological Studies of Benzene Derivatives. WV. The Correlation
of Crystalline Form with Molecular Structure: A Verification of
the Barlow-Pope Conception of Valency-Volume. By Henry EF.

' Proc. Roy. Soc. 1914, Series B, ‘Studies on Enzyme Action,’ xxii., Lipase (iv.)
‘The Correlation of Hydrolytic and Synthetic Activity,’ by Henry E. Armstrong and
H. W. Gosney.

110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

Armstronec, R. T. Coucats and E. H. Ropp. Proc. Roy, Soc.,
Series A, Vol. 90, pp. 111-173.

VI. Parasulphonic derivatives of Chloro-, Bromo-, Todo, and Cyano-
benzene. By C. 8. Mummery, B.Sc.

VII. The Correlation of the Forms of Crystals with their Molecular
Structure and Orientation in a Magnetic Field in the Case of Hydrated
Sulphonates of Dyad Metals. By Henry EH. Armstrona and EK. H.
Ropp.

In the first of these it is shown that the method of treatment
introduced by Barlow and Pope is applicable to a large number of
derivatives of benzenesulphochloride or bromide of the formula
C,H,R, . SO,Cl, R being an atom of halogen. When equivalence
parameters are calculated from the axial ratios and the valency volume,
in nearly thirty cases the values found of two of the parameters are
all but identical with those of the corresponding parameters of benzene,
the third parameter being increased by the same amount beyond the
benzene value by the introduction of the sulphonic radicle. Hence
it is to be supposed that the halogens have the same relative valency
volume as hydrogen in all the compounds considered. Numerous
other cases are quoted in support of the conception of valency introduced
by Barlow and Pope.

In the second communication data are given for various derivatives
of benzenesulphochloride containing but one atom of halogen. It is
shown fhat these fall into line with the di-derivatives.

In the third attention is called to crystallographic peculiarities
presented by substituted benzenesulphonates of dyad metals and a close
relationship to corresponding toluenemephonates is established. The
influence of water of crystallisation is considered.

Attention is specially directed also to the peculiar behaviour of
certain isomorphous salts of iron, cobalt and nickel in the magnetic
field. When suspended similarly in either of two axial directions,
corresponding isomorphous iron and cobalt salts always act along
crystallographic axes at right angles to each other. Nickel salts
behave like cobalt salts when suspended in the one axial direction,
like iron salts when suspended in the other. Apparently the difference
in the behaviour of the various salts is to be referred to magnetic
peculiarities in the metallic atoms.

Study of Solubility Phenomena.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG (Chairman),
Dr. J. Varcas Eyre (Secretary), Dr. E. F. ARMSTRONG,
Professor A. Finpnay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and Professor
‘W. J. POPE. Boxe

Mucu of the time since the ein of this Committee has been
devoted to setting up the required apparatus and getting it into working
order in a new laboratory. Materials have been purified and work
has been done to ascertain within what limits solubility determinations
were trustworthy under the new conditions.

————

ON THE STUDY OF SOLUBILITY PHENOMENA. 111

Preliminary trials have been made to ascertain the influence of
isomeric alcohols on the solubility of salts in water at 25°C. Small
differences have been observed in the precipitating effect of the butylic
alcohols, and work is now in progress to determine the variations in
solubility of the chlorides of potassium, sodium and ammonium brought
about by the addition of small quantities of the isomeric propylic,
butylic and amylic alcohols.

It is desired that the Committee be reappointed.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles —Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. R. H. TippemMan (Chairman), Dr. A. R.
DWERRYHOUSE (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
HapMer, Rev. S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr, W.
Lower CARTER, Professor J. W. Souuas, and Messrs. W.
Hitt, J. W. StatuHer, and J. H. Mitton.

Tur Committee reports that owing, probably, to the early date of
the meeting no lists of erratics have been contributed during the year,
and in consequence no part of the grant has been expended.

The Committee seeks reappointment with a grant of dl.

The Preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils.—Second
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P.
F. KENDALL (Chairman), Mr. W. LOWER CARTER (Secretary),
Mr. H. A. ALLEN, Professor W. S. Bouuton, Professor G.
Cots, Dr. A. R. DwEeRRYHOUSE, Professors J. W. GREGORY,
Sir T. H. Hoxtuanp, G. A. Lepour, and §. H. REYNOLDs,
Dr. Mariz C. Stopes, Mr. Cosmo Jouns, Dr. J. E. Marr,
Dr. A. VAUGHAN, Professor W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woops,
and Dr. A. SMITH WooDwaRD, appointed for the considera-
tion thereof.

No meeting of the Committee was held during the year, but numerous
suggestions for a list of fossils were received. From these a provisional
list was compiled by the Secretary, and uncorrected were printed and
circulated. This provisional list, when revised, will, it is hoped, form
the basis for the publication of an amended list of fossils next year.
The Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of £10.

Geology of Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire.—Final Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. A. SrRaHan (Chairman), Dr.
HERBERT H. THomas (Secretary), Mr. E. E. L. Drxon, Dr.
J. W. Evans, Mr. J. F. N. Green and Professor O. T. JoNES.

Tue Committee have to report that the grant made to them in 1913 to
aid Mr. J. Pringle in continuing his researches in the west of Pembroke-

112 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

shire has been spent. They have also to report that the detailed
mapping of the island has been completed. The examination of the
rocks and fossils which have been collected will be proceeded with.

For the purpose of description the island can be divided conveniently
into two areas—a northern area composed of Lingula Flags, Arenig
mudstones and shales, Lower Llanvirn, and the intrusive mass of Carn
Ysgubor; and a southern area of Lower Llanvirn shales with inter-
bedded tuffs and rhyolites, and a thick mass of intrusive quartz-
porphyry. To the latter area belongs the mass of rhyolitic and brecciated
tuffs of Carn Llundain.

Northern Area.

Lingula Flags.—The Lingula Flags consist of bluish-grey flaggy,
micaceous shales with ribs of hard grey close-grained sandstone, some
of which reach a thickness of two feet. They occupy the headland
of Trwyn Drain-du, and they extend eastwards to Bay Ogof Hén, while
on the eastern side of the island they form the cliffs from the north-
east corner to Road Uchaf. The Flags also occur in the headland to
the south of Abermawr. They are highly fossiliferous, and yield Lingu-
lella davisi in great abundance.

Arenig.—All the zones of the Arenig are present. The lowest beds
are bluish-grey sandy mudstones and shales with Ogygia selwyni, Orthis
proava, and O. menapi@. ‘They are confined to the north-east corner
of the island, and are faulted against the Lingula Flags. The mud-
stones are followed by bluish-black shales belonging to the Extensus
Zone, and are well displayed in the cliffs at Road Uchaf and Road Isaf.
Similar shales belonging to the Hirundo Zone are present in Abermawr.

Lower Llanvirn.—The base of the Lower Llanvirn is seen only in
the cliffs in Abermawr, where the shales of the Hirundo Zone are
succeeded by a thick series of hard dark- and light-coloured tuffs of fine
texture, which yield Didymograptus bifidus in their highest beds. The
tuffs are followed by fossiliferous blue-black shales, but their full
thickness is not seen in the northern area.

Intrusive Rocks.—Carn Ysgubor is formed of an intrusive mass of
quartz-albite-diabase, which has invaded the sediments of Lower Llan-
virn, Arenig, and Lingula Flags. A small intrusion occurs south of
Abermawr, where Lingula Flags are in contact with a quartz-kerato-
phyre.

Southern Area.

This area was described in the first report, in which it was shown to
be composed of D. bifidus shales which had been invaded by a thick
mass of quartz-porphyry. The shales, well displayed in the cliffs
of Porth Llauog and Foel Fawr, are highly fossiliferous, and a large
collection of graptolites has been made from them. They contain
layers of coarse agglomeratic tuff, and at Foel Fawr pass upwards
into thick beds of tuff which are conformably overlain by grey rhyolites.
The tuffs and conglomerate on Carn Llundain belong to the same period
of eruption.

ON GEOLOGY OF RAMSEY ISLAND, PEMBROKESHIRE. 113

The two points of interest, therefore, which were made the object
of mapping the island have been successfully solved. It has been found
that the so-called Tremadoc beds are Arenig sediments, and that they
do not pass downwards into the Lingula Flags, but are brought against
them by a fault; also that the rocks hitherto regarded as pre-Cambrian
belong to a period of igneous activity that occurred in Lower Llanvirn,
or even later, times.

It is hoped that the full description of the district will be completed
this year, and it is the present intention of Mr. J. Pringle to com-
municate the results of his investigations to the Geological Society of
London.

——— ——— SS

The Old Ked Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Interim
Report of Committee, consisting of Professor GRENVILLE COLE
(Chairman), Professor T. JoHNSON (Secretary), Dr. J. W.
Evans, Dr. R. Kipston, and Dr. A. SMITH WooDWARD.,

Ow1ne to the early date at which this year’s Report is required, and
the absence of Professor Johnson at the Australian Meeting, it is im-
possible to utilise the funds available for field-work, which normally
is carried on during the long vacation.

Your Committee asks for its reappointment, and for the renewal of
the grant of 10]. not utilised in 1913-14, together with the unexpended
balance of 91. odd.

Two papers have been published during the past year: —T. Johnson:
1. Ginkgophyllum Kiltorkense sp. nov.; 2. Bothrodendron Kiltorkense
Haught. sp., its Stigmaria and Cone (‘ Sci. Proc., R. Dublin Society,’
vol. xiy.).

Stratigraphical Names.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. J. KE. Marr (Chatrman), Professor GRENVILLE
Cote, Mr. Bernard Hopson, Dr. J. Horne, Professor
Lepour, Dr. A. STRAHAN, Professor W. W. Watts, and
Dr. F. A. BatHer (Secretary), appointed to consider the pre-
paration of a List of Stratigraphical Names used in the British
Isles, in connection with the Lexicon of Stratigraphical
Names in course of preparation by the International Geological
Congress.

Ar its Meeting in Stockholm, 1910, the International Geological Con-
gress appointed a Committee to produce a ‘ Lexique international de
Stratigraphie.’ The convener of this International Committee is
Dr. Lukas Waagen, of Vienna, and the Secretary of the present Com-
mittee had the honour of being appointed representative of Great
Britain.

Before the Meeting of the International Geological Congress in
Toronto, 1918, various proposals were discussed by the members of

1914. I

114 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the International Committee, and a provisional Report was laid before
the International Congress. Unfortunately neither Dr. Waagen nor
Dr. Bather were able to attend the Congress in Toronto, and up to the
date of writing they have received no official communication from the
officers of the Congress. It is, however, understood that the Congress
can grant no subyention to aid the work.

The situation, therefore, may be thus summarised:—The Inter-
national Congress has appointed a Committee to produce a laborious and
costly work of undoubted value to all interested in Geology and the
allied sciences. There are no funds for this purpose. The details
of the scheme, even if decided on at the Congress, are not yet known
to the present Committee of the Association.

Consequently your Committee has been unable to take any steps,
although some of its members have made note of stratigraphical names
observed in the course of their ordinary work, and are prepared to
continue this practice and eventually to place such material at the
disposal of the International Committee. Your Committee is, however,
well aware that the search for names must be conducted systematically,
and it considers that funds will be needed to pay searchers and com-
pilers. A grant is not asked for at present, merely because it is not yet
possible to draw up a plan of operations.

The fact that this Report will be presented to the Association when
meeting in Australia leads your Committee to point out that it has
been appointed to consider names used in the British Isles, and that
no provision has yet been made for the other constituents of the British
Empire. As regards India, indeed, the work has been accomplished by
Sir Thomas Holland and Mr, G. H. Tipper in their ‘ Indian Geological
Terminology.’+ But it is desirable that other Committees should be
formed, and the present occasion seems appropriate for the establish-
ment of one to deal with Australasia. Any such Committees would
communicate directly with Dr. L. Waagen (K.k. geolog. Reichsanstalt,
Wien).

Your Committee asks for its reappointment, for the present without
a grant.

Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the Western Midlands.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. Barrow (Chairman),
Mr. L. J. Witts (Secretary), Dr. J. HumpHreys, Mr. W.
CAMPBELL SMITH, Mr. D. M. 8. Watson, and Prof. W. W.
WATTS.

Tu1s Committee regrets that cwing to the early date at which the
report has to be submitted this year, very slight progress has been
made with the digging operations in Warwickshire and Worcestershire.
Some hundred and more specimens have been obtained from the
Arden Sandstone at Shelfield, near Alcester, and Hunt End, near

1 Mem. Geol. Surv, India, vol xliii., Part 1, 1913.

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE WESTERN MIDLANDS. 115

Redditch, including the bones and teeth of Labyrinthodon, teeth of
Polyacrodus and Phebodus (?), plant remains, &c.

Permission has already been obtained to work in the famous Coton
End Quarry at Warwick, and arrangements made for further digging
at Shelfield should the grant be renewed. It is felt that the chief
difficulty is the discovery of productive fossiliferous horizons, and then
the arrangement for labour in scattered and often secluded localities.
The larger part of the money so far spent has been in travelling
expenses in this connection,

The Lower Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Prof. W. W. Warts (Chair-
man), Prof. W. G. FEARNSIDES (Secretary), Prof. W. 5.
Bourton, Mr. E. S. Copsonp, Mr. V. C. Innine, Dr. C. Lap-
worTH, and Dr. J. E. Marr, appointed to excavate Critical
Sections therein.

Nuneaton Area.—Mr. Y. C. Illing reports that during the winter of
1913-14 and the ensuing spring, systematic trenching was begun
across the outcrop of the Abbey Shale division of the Stockingford
Shales. By the kind permission of Mr. Phillips, of Ansley Hall, the
work was carried out in the Hartshill Hayes. A trench, thirty yards
long, two feet wide, and three feet deep, was made in the direction of
the dip of the shales, and cross trenches were cut along the strike
of nine of the beds richest in fossils. In some cases these latter
trenches were cut to a depth of ten feet. About thirty yards away,
in the direction of the strike, a second trench was cut across the out-
crop, and, in addition to the discovery of further types of fossils,
evidence was obtained of lateral changes in lithology. Some five
thousand specimens were obtained, chiefly of trilobites, ranging over
some fifty different species. These indicate a fauna corresponding to
that of the Upper Solva Beds and the Lower and Middle Menevian
Beds, i.e. the zones of Conocoryphe exsulans, Agnostus parvifrons,
Conocoryphe ‘equalis (?), and Paradoxides davidis, of Sweden, and the
zones of P. aurora, P. hicksti, and P. davidis, of South Wales. In
addition new links have been found between the fauna of this area
and that of the corresponding beds in Bohemia, three of the forms
being new to Britain. The fossils are being described and photo-
ened, and a paper on the subject will be presented to the Geological
ociety.

Comley Area, Shropshire.—Mr. E. S. Cobbold reports that exca-
‘vations have been begun in the Cambrian Rocks of the Comley area,
‘but no report of the results is yet possible.

The Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of 151., which
would include the unspent portion of this year’s grant.

116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

The Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Horne (Chairman), Dr.
T. J. JEHv (Secretary), Mr. H. Botron, Mr. A. W. R. Don,
Dr. J. S. Furrt, Dr. B. N. PeEacH, and Dr. A. SmitH Woop-
WARD, appointed to conduct the further exploration thereof ;
with a separate report by Dr. SmitH Woopwarp on the
Fish Remains.

Srvce the preliminary report was presented at the Birmingham
Meeting the excavations for fossil fishes at Dura Den have been com-
pleted and the ground has been levelled. The Committee desire
again to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr. Bayne-Meldrum, of
Balmungo, the proprietor, who gave great facilities for carrying out
the operations. They wish also to express their obligations to Mr. R.
Dunlop, from Dunfermline, who superintended the work on the spot
and who took a series of excellent photographs of the best specimens
of fossil fishes.

At the outset brief reference may be made to the geological struc-
ture of the ground near Dura Den. Strata of Upper Old Red Sand-
stone age underlie the long depression of the Howe of Fife, which
ranges westwards from St. Andrews Bay, between the slopes of the
Ochil Hills on the north and the heights of the Carboniferous
rocks with their intrusive masses on the south. The actual junction
with the Lower Old Red Sandstone volcanic series of the Ochils
is hidden everywhere by drift, but the line of contact is evidently an
unconformable one. For the sheets of andesite dip south-east
at angles of about 15°, and are overlapped at different horizons by
the more gently inclined members of the Upper Old Red Sandstone.

In Central Fife there is a conformable passage from the Upper Old
Red Sandstone into the Lower Carboniferous strata. But in Eastern
Fife the top of the Upper Old Red Sandstone is cut off by a fault
which crosses Dura Den in a north-easterly direction and brings down
the Carboniferous strata on the south-east side.

The ravine of Dura Den has been cut by the Ceres Burn since the
Ice Age. This rivulet is formed by the union of a number of smaller
streams which rise in the Carboniferous area of Fife. ‘The Den has
been excavated across the line of fracture and is about a mile and a
half in length (see Fig. 1).

Below the mouth of the Den the Ceres Burn enters the alluvial
plain of the Eden and joins that river about a mile above the village
of Dairsie. Dura Den is eroded in the Lower Carboniferous and Upper
Old Red Sandstone formations. For a distance of several hundred
yards the Upper Old Red Sandstone strata are laid bare in the channel
of the stream and in a range of picturesque cliffs on either side. The
section runs along the strike of nearly horizontal beds, so that only a
comparatively small thickness of rocks is exposed. These belong
to the upper part of the formation, but the actual top, as already

ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 117

- SITE OF
ES AXCAVATIONS,

0 ¥4, Yo % IMILE
2 SS eee

/ e qa
| Lower Carboniferous. U3 Lee oe
e
AO eee HUA Basalt and Dolerite.

— soe = Faults.

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Fig. 1.—Geological Sketch-map of the District surrounding Dura Den.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

118

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ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 119

indicated, is cut off by the fault, near which the Lower Carboniferous
‘strata are seen dipping at angles of 35° to 40° to the south-east. The
rocks consist of yellow, red, and greenish sandstones, with bands of
clay or marl, and are nearly horizontal. They are rather fine-grained,
somewhat fissile, and, in places, extremely false-bedded.

Remains of fishes in the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Fife were
first observed in 1831 at Drumdryan, near Cupar, by the Rev. John
Fleming. The scales detected by him were found to occur more
abundantly at Dura Den, a mile farther east, and entire fishes were
obtained there, preserved in the sandstone.

For years the Rev. Dr. Anderson worked at these beds and pub-
lished numerous papers descriptive of the region. The fish-remains
obtained from time to time at this famous locality were examined and
described by Agassiz, Huxley, and other investigators. The excava-
tions were carried on partly under the guidance of a Committee of
the British Association, which gave its first report in 1860.

The remains occur as carbonised impressions on the fine-grained
pale-yellow stone, and sometimes are to be found crowded together.
Sir A. Geikie has remarked that ‘ the Dura Den sandstone does not so
much mark a definite paleeontological subdivision as an exceptional
area where the organisms were rapidly killed and buried in great
numbers.’ ?

On the other hand, Dr. Traquair correlated the Dura Den fish fauna
with that of the highest subdivision of the Upper Old Red Sandstone
on the south side of the Moray Firth. Dr. Traquair’s list of fishes
found at Dura Den during the earlier excavations is given below :?

Bothriolepis hydrophila, Ag.
Phyllolepis concentrica, Ag.
Glyptopomus minor, Ag.
Glyptopomus kinnairdi, Hux).
Gyroptychius heddlei, Traq.
Holoptychius flemingi, Ag.
Phaneropleuron andersoni, Hux.

In the spring of 1912 the Dundee local Committee of the British
Association began excavations with the view of re-exposing the fish-bed
at Dura Den. The work was carried on under the supervision of
Mr. A. W. R. Don. The exact site of the previous diggings was un-
known, but, according to local tradition, many of the first specimens
had been obtained from the sandstone forming the bed of the stream
and from an excavation on the left side between the stream and the
mill-lade. After some trial explorations the fish-bed was eventually
struck, and part of the old workings was exposed. The latter lay
30 feet to the west of the stream, just opposite the north end of the
garden belonging to the house known as ‘ The Laurels,’ now in the oceu-
pation of Dr. Graham Campbell. A pit was opened from the base of
the old workings in the direction of the mill-lade, and the fish-bed
was found to lie at a depth of nine feet from the surface. Only a small

* ©The Geology of Eastern Fife’ (Mem. Geol. Surv.), 1902, p 59.
* <The Geology of Eastern Fife’ (Mem. Geol. Surv.), 1902, p. 58.

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

REPORTS

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ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 121

part of the fish-bed was then worked. A few good specimens were
obtained, and were on view when the locality was visited during one
of the excursions arranged in connection with the Geological Section of
the British Association Meeting at Dundee in 1912.

Work was resumed by our Committee on May 5, 1913, and pro-
ceeded more or less continuously to the end of August 19138. The
pit, opened in 1912, having been partly refilled, had to be cleared
again. As stated in the preliminary report issued last year, a definite
plan was followed in the excayations. The fish-bearing zone was un-
covered and removed in successive sections (fig. 3).

The sandstone layer, rich in fish-remains, is restricted to a zone
about two inches thick. It lies at an average depth of nine feet from
the surface, and is overlain by about four feet of comparatively barren
sandstone, capped by about four feet of loose superficial materials.
It was decided to work the fish-bed in the direction in which the fish-
remains appeared to be most abundant. As the operations extended
towards the mill-lade in the area marked A’ in fig. 3, the sandstone did
not yield fishes, as if the limit of the rich fish-bearing zone had been
reached in that direction. The arrangement was then made to carry
on the excavations towards the stream and just north of the face of the
old workings.

The finest specimens of fossil fishes and the largest number were
obtained in the middle section (area marked B in fig. 8) and in the
immediately adjoining parts of the other two sections (A and © in
fig. 3). The greater part of the area marked C in fig. 3 proved to be
somewhat disappointing, though one slab containing twenty specimens
was found there and a fine example of Phyllolepis quite close to the
stream. Good specimens, however, were scarce in section © outside
the limit of the rich fish-bearing zone. In the north-east corner of
it near the stream a sandstone layer with fragmentary fish-remains
was traced for a short distance.

It is worthy of note that large scales of H oloptychius were obtained
in the sandstone three feet above the fish-bed, and that fish-scales in a
fragmentary condition were found scattered throughout the sandstones
above that zone. No fish-scales were detected below that horizon,
although the excavations were continued downwards for nearly two
feet beneath that zone.

Fine examples of sun-cracks were seen in the sandstone at depths
varying from two to four inches below the fish-bed, and, at one
locality, one inch above that horizon. This feature is suggestive, and
probably points to desiccation as a cause of the death of the fishes
in a shoal at this locality.

In all forty-two slabs of stone with well-preserved fish-remains were
obtained. These were photographed by Mr. Dunlop, and the photo-
graphs were sent to Dr. Smith Woodward for determination. About
fifty fragmentary specimens were collected which were not photo-
graphed. The whole collection has been stored in an adjoining mill
under lock and key.

The expenses connected with these detailed investigations have
exceeded the British Association grant of 751. and the contribution of

122 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

121. from Mr. Bolton of the Bristol Museum. The Curator of Ichthy-
ology in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, has
offered a donation towards’ the expenses on condition that some of
the specimens be given to that Museum. The Committee have accepted
this offer.

On June 19 the Chairman, the Secretary, Dr. Smith Woodward,
and Mr. Dunlop visited Dura Den. Each specimen was then examined
by Dr. Smith Woodward, and a scheme of distributing the fish-remains
to various public institutions was adopted by the members of the
Committee who were then present. The distribution will be carried out
during this summer.

The report of Dr. Smith Woodward is appended :

Preliminary Report-on the Fossil Fishes from Dura Den.
By Dr. A. Smira Woopwarp.

The very large majority of the fishes found during the excavations
at» Dura Den are examples of Holoptychius flemingi, and most of
the slabs exhibif no other species, Specimens of Glyptopomus
kinnairdi, -Glyptopomus' minor, Phaneropleuron andersoni, and
Bothriolepis hydrophila occur-but rarely. All are nearly complete,
as usual, having keen suddenly buried; and it is probable that when
studied in detail the new collection will make some small additions to
our knowledge of the spéciés represented.

The only important novelty is a nearly complete specimen of
Phyllolepis, which shows for the first time the arrangement of the
dermal plates in this rare fish; and apparently determines its affinities.
The genus has already been recorded from Dura Den,’ but it is known
only by detached plates. The armoured portion of the fish is oval in
shape and depressed, so that the fossil is exposed from above or
below. The surface shown is covered chiefly with two large plates,
one behind the other, each irregularly hexagonal in shape and slightly
broader than long. The anterior plate 1s somewhat the smaller and
narrower; and the regularity of its concentric ridge-ornament is inter-
rupted by waviness in lines apparently of slime-canals which radiate
symmetrically from the centre to the periphery. The posterior plate
is ornamented exactly like the imperfect typical plate of Phillolepis
concentrica from Clashbennie.* Round the anterior plate are arranged
four pairs of small plates, which decrease in width forwards. Their
ridge-ornament is peculiar in being concentric only with two or three
of the margins of each plate and running out at right-angles to the
inner margin. The postero-lateral plate is long and narrow and much
the largest, extending along the posterior two-thirds of the anterior
median plate. The next plate forwards, also long and narrow, is
much less than half as large as the postero-lateral just described, and
the two pairs of anterior plates are comparatively small. This series
of plates on each side is continued behind by another still larger plate,
which flanks somewhat less than the anterior half of the posterior
median plate and ends postero-laterally in a produced angle or cornu.

° A, S.. Woodward, Catal. Foss. Fishes Brit. Mus.,.Pt; IT. (1891), p. 314.
4 L. Agassiz, Poiss. Foss. Vieux Grés Rouge (1844), p. 67, pl. xxiv. fig. 1.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.} [Puate II,

»)

Fie. 4.—Phyllolepis concentrica, Ag.; ventral or dorsal aspect of dermal armour,
showing arrangement of plates, two-thirds natural size.

Illustrating the Report on the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.

[To face page 122.

ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 123

The ornamental ridges here radiate chiefly from the posterior cornu and
the outer margin and are most widely spaced on the postero-internal
part of the plate. No vacuities are observable in any of the plates,
but all of the anterior pairs are crossed by slime-canals in continuation
of the radiating canals on the anterior median plate. The total
length of the fossil is 12.5 cm.

The ornamentation of the posterior median plate of the specimen
just described seems to justify its reference to the typical species,
Phyllolepis concentrica, already known by imperfect plates from
Clashbennie, Perthshire. It is also interesting to add that some of the
other plates agree well with specimens found in association with
P. concentrica in the Upper Devonian of Belgium.> The ornament of
the anterior median plate corresponds with that of the so-called
P. corneti,® while both the ornament and shape of some of the lateral
plates are essentially the same as those of the small plates named
Pentagonolepis." The plates forming the lateral cornua do not appear
to have been previously seen.

The whole fossil is most suggestive of the ventral aspect of the
curious Devonian Ostracoderms Drepanaspis* and Psammosteus.? It
agrees with Drepanaspis in showing two principal median plates one
behind the other, though in Phyllolepis they are more nearly equal
in size. It corresponds with Psammosteus in exhibiting a prominent
pair of lateral cornua at the hinder end of the series of small marginal
plates, opposite the middle of the posterior median plate. It differs
from both in lacking separate small tessellated plates. There is, there-
fore, not much doubt that Phyllolepis is a genus of Ostracoderms most
nearly allied to the Drepanaspide or Psammosteide.

Antarctic Whaling Industry.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. S. F. Harmer (Chairman), Dr. W. T. CALMAN
(Secretary), Dr. F. A. Baruser, Dr. W. S. Bruce, and Dr. P.
CHALMERS MITCHELL, appointed to provide assistance for
Major G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton’s Expedition to South
Georgia to investigate the position of the Antarctic Whaling
Industry.

By kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum the Com-
mittee arranged for Mr. P. Stammwitz, a taxidermist employed at the
Natural History Museum, South Kensington, to accompany Major
Barrett-Hamilton to South Georgia; and the greater part of the grant

* M. Lohest, ‘Recherches sur les Poissons des Terrains Paléozoiques de
Belgique,’ Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg., vol. xv. (1888), Mém., pp. 155-167, pls. x., xi.

®° M. Lohest, loc. cit., p. 157, pl. x. fig. 6.

7 M. Lohest, loc. cit., P. 161, pl. xi. figs. 1-8.

‘R. H. Traquair, ‘Additional Note on Drepanaspis Gemiindenensis,
Schliiter, ’ Geol. Mag. [4] vol. ix. (1902), pp. 289-291.

7A. 8. Woodward, ‘On the Upper Devonian Ostracoderm, Psammosteus

taylori,’ Ann. ALag. Nat. Hist. [8] vol. viii. (1911), pp. 649-652, pl. ix.

124 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

placed at the disposal of the Committee has been expended in paying
his salary and in making certain preliminary payments. He sailed
with Major Barrett-Hamilton on October 6, 1913, and work was com-
menced at South Georgia immediately after their arrival on
November 10.

Early in the new year news was received that Major Barrett-
Hamilton had died suddenly at South Georgia on January 17, while
his inquiries were in full progress. ‘This unlooked-for event, which
the Committee record with profound sorrow, naturally altered the
entire prospects of the expedition. Mr. Stammwitz had no alternative
but to return at once, and after making arrangements for the despatch
of the specimens which had been collected, he took the first opportunity
of leaving South Georgia, bringing with him the notebooks containing
Major Barrett-Hamilton’s observations. At the request of the
Colonial Office, and with the approval of the Trustees of the British
Museum, these notebooks have been placed in the hands of Mr. Martin
A. C. Hinton for examination. It is hoped that the results of the
work which Major Barrett-Hamilton had done before his death will
thus not be entirely lost. The collections brought home comprise a
very valuable series of specimens—in particular, flippers, complete sets
of baleen, and other anatomical material from the blue whale, the
common rorqual, and the humpback whale. These specimens have
been presented to the Natural History Museum by Messrs. Chr.
Salvesen & Co., at whose whaling station they were obtained, and they
should be of service in helping to decide the much-debated question
whether these Antarctic whales are specifically identical with their
northern representatives.

A few birds were obtained at South Trinidad on the outward journey,
and a certain amount of dredging and shore-collecting was done at
South Georgia. The collection made includes marine invertebrates and
fishes, bird-skins, plants, and a few insects and rock-specimens. These
have been handed over to the Natural History Museum, where arrange-
ments are being made to have them determined, and if necessary reported
on, by specialists.

At the request of the Meteorological Office, Mr. Stammwitz took a
series of observations on sea-temperatures and ice-drift while at South
Georgia, and these are now being utilised by the Office.

The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the value of the
assistance which was given to the expedition by Mr. J. Innes Wilson,
Stipendiary Magistrate of South Georgia, Messrs. Chr. Salvesen & Co.,
and Mr. Henriksen, the manager of their Leith Harbour Whaling
Station, Messrs. Bryde & Dahl, the Ténsberg Whaling Company, and
other individuals and whaling companies connected with South Georgia.

The amount actually expended is less by 151. than the total (90I.)
allotted to the Committee, and it is not proposed to apply for this
balance.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 125

Belmullet Whaling Station.—Report of the Committee, consisting
: of Dr. A. E. Sureney (Chairman), Professor J. STANLEY
GARDINER (Secretary), Professor W. A. HERDMAN, Rey. W.
Sporswoop GREEN, Mr. EK. S. GoopricH, Professor H. W.
Marett Trims, and Mr. R. M. Barrineron, appointed to
investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet
Whaling Station.

Tue Committee acting through Professor Herdman arranged with Mr.
J. Erik Hamilton and Mr. R. J. Daniel, two post-graduate research
students of the University of Liverpool, for the prosecution of their
researches in 19138. They proceeded to Belmullet on June 25 and Mr.
Hamilton remained until the end of the fishery. Mr. Daniel retired
from the investigations on August 26, having been appointed to a post
under the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Mr. Hamilton’s Report
is appended.

The Committee desire to express their thanks to Mr. R. M.
Barrington for considerable financial assistance. They have been
enabled owing to his generosity to arrange with Mr. Hamilton for
the further prosecution of the work in 1914. They have now experi-
ence with three investigators—Mr. Lillie, Mr. Burfield, and Mr.
‘Hamilton—and they find that the annual expense is about 45]. They
attach great importance, both from the scientific and economic sides,
to the further continuation of these investigations, and beg to apply
for reappointment with a grant of 451. for the summer of 1915.

Report to the Committee by J. Ertk Hamiuron, B.Sc.

I.—Introduction.

In June 1913 Mr. R. J. Daniel and I proceeded to the Blacksod
Bay Whaling Station on Ardelly Point, Blacksod Bay, Co. Mayo,
Ireland, to continue the work carried on by Mr. S. T. Burfield, B.A.,
mm 1911.2

The flensing plane was clearly visible by telescope from the hotel,
and the whaling steamers are compelled to pass the Point whenever
they come in. In consequence no whale escaped notice, as might
otherwise have happened on account of the distance from the Station.

Our first whale was examined on the morning after our arrival,
i.e., on June 26, the last on September 9. As Mr. Daniel was
appointed to a post under the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, he
had to leave Blacksod on August 26 for his new duties. Consequently
the working up of the collections and the preparation of this Report
have been left in my hands.

T desire to express my heartiest thanks to Professor W. A. Herdman,

* British Association Report, 1912, p. 145.

126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1914.

F.R.S., who has given advice and help of great value during the time
which was spent in his Laboratory in working up the materials obtained

To Captain Lorens Bruun and Mr. D. Bingham sincere thanks are
due from Mr. Daniel and myself for the way in which they assisted us
at the Station. We would also wish to mention that on many occasions
the men employed at the Station helped us in the most obliging manner.

Two steamers continue to be used, both fitted with wireless tele-
graphy, which is employed solely for communication between the boats.
As a result of the possession of this apparatus, if one boat finds whales
in numbers too great to be dealt with unaided, the other steamer may be
called up to assist in making the most of a fortunate find.

Burfield? has stated the disadvantages of work at a commercial
factory, and I wish to lay particular emphasis on the rarity with which
really fresh whales are brought in. It is exceptional for a whale to be
anything other than decomposing. Even in those sufficiently fresh to
be fit for food the carcase is quite hot in the deeper parts owing to
decomposition, while in the other cases carcases lying on the flensing
plane fizzle and splutter wherever a cut in the blubber permits the
internal gases to blow off.

Sperm Whales are particularly obnoxious, as they are brought from
considerable distances. They are frequently caught at Rockall, 240
miles away, and they smell strongly of cuttlefish. In two Sperm
Whales which we saw part of the intestine was blown out through
the back of the animal by pressure of gases produced by decomposition,
and from one specimen a great spout of blood and oil was projected
with considerable force over one of the investigators.

About thirty-eight Irishmen and fifteen Norwegians are employed
when work is in full swing. Of the Irishmen one is timekeeper and
another is second flenser, but all the other skilled workmen are
Norwegians.

The 1913 season was the best which the Blacksod Bay Whaling
Company has had up to the present. Sixty-four whales were brought
in. The whalemen state from their experience that in fine, calm
weather the whales go far out for food, and it is the case that during
the splendid weather of August very few were taken. But the largest
number of whales for a given number of days was brought in between
August 27 and September 9, when the weather was still fairly fine.
Nearly three thousand barrels of oil were shipped to Glasgow, to which
port all the produce of this Station is sent. There were also manu-
factured about fifteen hundred bags of guano.

All whale oils at present average 201. per ton (=54 barrels),
sperm oil and spermaceti having fallen considerably since 1911. The
oil is used for the manufacture of explosives, soap, &c., with the excep-
tion of the two sperm products. The oil of the Sperm Whale is used
for lubrication only, while spermaceti is largely utilised in the manu-
facture of church candles.

Whalebone from Balenoptera musculus and B. sibbaldii is now
651. per ton. The baleen of Megaptera is of very inferior quality,

7 Op. cit., p. 146.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 127

while B. borealis yields whalebone of considerably greater value,
although, since this is a small species, the plates are not of great
length.

The flesh of B. sibbaldii has an excellent flavour even when taken
from a large specimen. As it is full of oil it must be soaked in salt
water and vinegar for several hours before being used. If this pre-
caution is observed, it is almost impossible to distinguish whale-meat
from good quality of beef-steak. The flesh for food is generally cut
from the lateral post-anal region. On the Japanese Stations the
entire carcases of the whales taken are, or used to be, sold on the
market for food, it being more profitable to dispose of the animals in
this manner than to boil them down for oil and guano. In Norway
also a considerable amount of whale-meat is utilised by butchers. It
is usually salted as soon as the whales are flensed, and is seldom
placed on the market in the fresh condition. On account of the
extreme rapidity with which whales decompose very few of the
Blacksod Company’s whales could be used as food.

The attempts to recover the glue from the water resulting from
the various cooking processes applied to blubber, meat, &c., have
failed, The reason for the failure lies in the amount of steam which
is required to evaporate down the solution. This steam comsumption
necessitates the use of so much coal that the expenditure is not
covered by the price received for the glue which results from the
process of evaporation.

In whale-hunting the shot which is generally attempted is aimed at
a point behind the pectoral fin, as the animal here presents a large
target, and the cast-iron harpoon head, with its charge of blasting-
powder, is most likely to prove fatal when exploded in the thoracic
cavity. The shot, as a matter of fact, which explodes beside the
vertebral column in an anterior position is the most fatal. When this
happens the whale dies instantaneously. On the other hand, the
harpoon may fail to explode. In this case nothing can be done at the
moment except to let the harpoon line run out. The whale may
rush along the surface or descend almost vertically. If a surface run
is made the engines are put at full speed ahead in order to avoid
straining the harpoon rope, which is three-inch manilla cable. When
the whale dives down there is serious risk of the rope snapping.
One such case occurred to our knowledge during the 1913 season.
Only a few fathoms of cable were lost on this occasion, but at other
times whales have been known to take out the whole of the three or
four hundred fathoms attached to the harpoon, and then to break
the line at the bow of the boat. The whale is very much exhausted
after a deep dive such as this, and when it returns to the surface
another harpoon is fired into it, which almost invariably proves fatal.
Even if the rope is broken the animal is usually so fatigued that
it is readily approached and secured. We were informed by a very
experienced Norwegian whaler that it has happened that a steamer,
having become fast to a wounded whale, has ‘ played * it for as much
as thirty hours before the cowp de grace could be delivered.

128 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—-1914.

II.—Numbers and Species taken at the Blacksod Bay Station in 1913.

The number of whales taken in the 1913 season was sixty-four,
as has been stated. Of these fifteen were brought in previous to our
arrival; we therefore examined forty-nine. Five species came under
our notice, in the following numbers :—

Finners (Balenoptera musculus, LL.) . . «© »« «© « |. 387
Blue Whales (B. sibbaldti, Gray) . - . «© «© «© «© « 4
Sejhval (B. borealis, Lesson) . . sot, et Ae eras Gee
Humpback (Megaptera longimana, Rud. Dito: | See eet ea oe aE
Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus,L.). . . . . «. 6

Of the fifteen taken before June 26, eleven were Finners and
four Sperm Whales.

ILI.—Measurements and Proportions.
(See Tables at the end of this Report.)

In continuing the series of measurements adopted by Burfield,
who followed True,* we found that in some cases it was not easy to
determine the points from which measurements were taken, within
six inches or a foot. We therefore fixed on a series of standards
which enabled us to make measurements from corresponding points
on every whale. These points I attempt to define as follows :—

(1) Total length. Taken between a position opposite the end of
the upper jaw to a point opposite the notch between the flukes, in
a straight line. When, as in the case of our first two whales, and
in the cases of those taken before our arrival, we obtained the Norwegian
measurements, two points had to be observed: (a) that Norwegian
feet are equal to 12} English inches; (b) that the Norwegians measured
to the tip of the lower jaw, which projects beyond the rostrum, and
therefore an allowance must be made for this in reducing to “ total
length’ according to our standard. THighteen inches was the allow-
ance made, and this was probably erring on the side of taking off
too little rather than too much.

(2) Tip of snout to anterior end of the groove between the spiracles.
This line is quite sharply marked.

(3) Tip of snout to posterior insertion of pectoral fin, This
measurement and the next were taken on the dorsal side of the animal.

(4) Tip of snout to posterior imsertion of dorsal fin. This fin
slopes away behind as well as in front. The ‘ posterior insertion ’
was therefore found in the following manner—a line being dropped
from the apex of the dorsal fin, at right angles to the body, the
point where it cut the outline of the body was taken as the posterior
insertion of the dorsal fin. Apart from this method I do not think
that any point of equal value in every specimen could have been
found.

(5) Tip of snout to centre of eye.

(6) Centre of eye to anterior end of auditory slit.

(7) Notch of flukes to posterior end of anus.

(8) Notch of flukes to anterior margin of umbilicus, which was
the most definite border of that area.

3 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xxx.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 129

Measurements of the Pectoral Fin.

(9) Length of anterior border. There is an eminence at the anterior,
proximal end of the pectoral fin. Immediately anterior to this is a
slight depression. The eminence marks approximately the position
of the head of the humerus. Our measurement was taken from the
tip of the flipper, along the anterior margin, to the centre of the
eminence.

(10) The posterior length was taken from the tip, along the
margin, to the axilla. This measurement was not easy to take, as
the flipper was almost always directed backwards and the axilla
compressed. When this was the case the exact point of proximal
measurement had to be found by judgment, as the size of the limb
and the rigidity of the muscles attached to it entirely prevented any
attempt at altering the attitude of the fin.

(11) The median length was taken from the tip in a straight line,
down the centre of the flipper, to a point on a line drawn through
the axilla in such a manner as to carry on the outline of the body.
In taking this measurement the idea was to estimate the extent to
which the limb projects from the body.

(12) The greatest breadth of the pectoral fin was generally found
to be about half-way between the tip and the insertion.

(13) The length of the dorsal fin was taken from the posterior
insertion as defined above, and the anterior insertion, which could
usually be found with moderate accuracy. This measurement cannot
be regarded as more than approximate.

The flukes had been cut off every whale before it was towed in, but
on B. musculus (No. 19) the right fluke had not been completely
severed. Measurement gave 7 ft. 5 in. as the distance between tip
of fluke and caudal notch. The spread of the flukes was therefore
14 ft, 10 in.

Total Length.

The following table shows the averages of total length of the five
species taken, and a more detailed analysis of the total measurements
of the Finners at different stages. I have taken as the minima for
adult males and females the dimensions adopted by Burfield,+ who
followed True :—

Finners (B. musculus, L.)

Ft. in.

Average length of all finners CO) RENT bar arian ote OO) Lr 9
Pi 4 », females (17) - : . ; ee GO, A 7

- oh > males (20) F A F i 3. 59e 10

co . », adult females (12) : ; : : . 64 O
Maximum for females. 4 4 5 5 5 ; . . 69 8
Minimum for females f A - ; ‘ A é , = (48 87
Average for adult males (16) . ‘ 6 4 5 , ; . 60 8
Maximum for males . 3 : : ar Pe ee ee . 66 O
Minimum for males... ae eee A 4 ieee A oe!

* Op. cit., p. 160.
1914. K

130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

It may be useful to compare these results with those of Burfield,
who gives similar statistics for the year 1911:—

1911. 1913.

Ft. in Ft. in

Average for all specimens (63)! ee > 630) SAS apeaO iar S
rd » females (81) 60)... GLB aC

Ls » males (25) . : s HOt eD (20) 59 +O

= » mature females (20) . : «| M64 as (12) 64 0

Spi oe oe , tales (3)... . 63 2 16) coum
Maximum females ; : A F : Pee 72k be) 69 8
3 males . ; : ie - 2 6S eo 66 0
Minimum females . : d . ‘ «Oa eee 48 7
5 males . : 53.8 46 7

As all the figures for 1913 are epic smaller than the corre-
sponding figures of Burfield for 1911, it suggests the probability that
the larger whales are being killed off, although it would be useful
to have the figures for other years in ‘order to. verify the diminution
in size which appears to be taking place.

Blue Whales (B. sibbaldiit, Gray).
All the Blue Whales taken in the 1913 season were brought in
during our stay :—

Ft. in

July WOltemale..ter? Jee 1 teemee ey f> Vs, Stee
Aug 18s" 7, bse ehh oP sh MT re Sy Seyler eee
SIO: htt Asse oe? bas ahi iseaes als. [Ne dp ee ae
Sept. 9, , : . : : : eG 3 ; : 3 ~~ 68 0

Comparing these also with Burfield’s figures * for the same species
we have:—

1911 1913.
Ft. in Ft. in
Average forallfemales (4) . . . . . 75 4 (4) 71 3
Maximum for females . 3 ‘ 2 . 34 0 78
Minimum for females . ‘ : ‘ 7-64. 76 68 0

True gives 72 ft. as the minimum for mature females, but our
second specimen (70 ft. 7 in.) had a feetus 8 ft. long, and was
therefore an adult animal. (True’s figure was based upon two speci-
mens only.)

Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus, L.).

Ten Sperm Whales were taken in 1913; of these six were taken
after our arrival, and all the specimens were males.

Ft. in.

Average of all Sperm Whales oP males: 2:2L-3/) (65) £1e0e) Vos

Maximum, Sperm Whales. aS a zeae AOL

Minimum * 35 ; ; Fs : E ‘i i 5.) Onn
Sejhval (Balenoptera borealis, Lesson).

One specimen only taken in 1913,female . . . . 46ft. Tin

Humpback (Megaptera ae Rud.).
Only specimen taken, male . . . . . 45ft. 8in.
5 Op. cit., Table IV., p. 161.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 131

IV.—General Observations on the Various Species.

1. Finners (B. musculus, Gray).

(a) Colowration.—Noné of the specimens of the Finner examined
by us presented any remarkable colour variations. On very many
animals white marks occurred in the pigmented areas, as noted by
Burfiéld.* Some of these seemed to be the scars left after Penella has
dropped off. In many cases we found the sores which had been
produced by the parasite, although the latter was not present. These
sores presented the same appearance as the wounds in which the
parasites were still fixed.

Notes on individual specimens :—

No. 10.—There were a few white patches on the tongue, which
may have been the result of lesions, cr due to mere absence of
pigment.

No. 11.—A pale, grey line, about three-eighths of an inch broad,
but gradually widening, ran from the ear aperture upwards and
backwards to a point level with the anterior margin of the pectoral fin,
and about 9 in. above the level of the ear-hole. From here onwards
it broadened out and swept round in a semicircle to the anterior
margin of the pectoral. On the top of the head there was a triangular
grey patch, having as apices the angle of the jaw, the nape at the
level of the pectoral, and a point about half-way down the margin
of the rostrum.

No. 19.—The foetus of No. 19, 15 ft. in length, displayed the same
areas of colouration on the head as an adult. The dark colour of the
body was defined in front by the same line sweeping back from the eye,
through the ear, and down to the pectoral, while dorsally it was
limited by another line curving backwards, and dorsally, from the
eye.

No 24.—The black colour extended in flecks from the left as far
as the mid-ventral line, in the region of the ventral furrows.

No. 29.—The belly had a yellow tinge, but, as the animal was
very decomposed, this was probably not the case during life, as, when
they have been dead for some time, whales become very discoloured.
There were streaks of black on the left side of the belly.

There is always a certain amount of pigment in the more lateral
and posterior furrows. In Nos. 41 and 42 this was specially well
developed, extending almost to the mid-ventral line from the left
side. The furrow region of No. 42 had also a number of pale purple
staims in its pure white. These were due to the presence of blood
in the cutaneous vessels, which appeared to be gorged. They
resembled bruises, but the epidermis was undamaged. This whale
displayed a few of the ‘galvanised-iron’ markings which are charac-
teristic of the Blue Whale. These were in the post-anal region.
Tt had also several incised wounds in the belly, about 8 in. long,
partly healed, but stillraw. No. 45 had a large island of black pigment
on the posterior furrow region of the left side.

132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

There are frequently extensive white patches on the dark area,
caused by the chafing of the whale against the side of the steamer
as it is being towed in. These, however, are easily distinguished from
the naturally unpigmented areas.

(b) Ventral Furrows.—In the Finner the number of pectoral furrows
is exceedingly variable. We found a maximum of eighty-four, and a
minimum of fifty-four. In nearly half of the cases a median furrow
could be distinguished, the presence of which appears to have escaped
notice up to the present. The number was estimated by finding the
median furrow, and counting all those between it and the pectoral
fin of the side which happened to lie uppermost. As the fin is
approached the furrows become less marked, and it is not easy to
discern the furrow nearest the fin. The skin in the axillary region
is much folded longitudinally, which further complicates matters.
By doubling the number of furrows thus counted and adding the
unpaired median an estimate of the total number was made. The
furrows in the smallest foetus (3 ft. 11 in.) were represented by
mere lines, and could not be counted with accuracy. The folds of
twenty-seven specimens were counted, of which twelve had no dis-
tinguishable median furrow. The average depth of these furrows
was about ‘68 in. (deduced from eight measurements), and the average
horizontal distance between points above the middle lines of the same
number of furrows was 1°85 in., varying from 1°37 in. to 1:96 in. These
measurements were taken from a portion of blubber lying on the
plane and not stretched in any way.

Tt is essential that the counting should always be made in the
same position, as some of the folds do not run the whole length of
the furrowed area. There does, however, appear to be a certain
amount of uniformity in the folding, the shorter folds corresponding
with each other in different whales, if not with absolute accuracy, at
any rate nearly so.

(c) Tongue.-—The colour of the tongue as a whole is dark §rey,
but the area which is the morphological upper surface, which is
distinguishable from the morphological lower surface, shades off into
pink towards the ‘ tip.’

2. Blue Whales (B. sibbaldii, Gray).

Colouration.—The only point to which I wish to draw attention is
that there are some curious markings on the skin, especially ven-
trally, but not confined to that aspect. These markings take the form
of curved, darker and lighter lines radiating from a common centre.
The area of such markings is about 8 in. long and 4 in. wide. Where
there is a number of markings crowded together, the appearance of
the skin forcibly reminds one of the pattern produced on the surface
of ‘ galvanised iron.” These markings occur in considerable abundance
on large areas of the skin.

3. Sejhval (B. borealis, Lesson).

Exlernal Characters.—The solitary example of this species taken
was a female. Although a small species (this specimen was only

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 133

46 ft. 7 in. long) it has a robust figure, and the dorsal fin is of great
height as compared with that of the Finner. This specimen had been
lying at the buoy from Thursday afternoon until it was hauled up
on Saturday morning, and was therefore considerably decomposed.
The dorsal surface was dark grey, as was also the post-anal area of
the ventral surface. The pre-anal region was for the most part of
white colour, asymmetrically arranged. There was a considerable
amount of black blotching towards the left side of this area, and on
this side the white area was continued backwards in a large patch.
There was no white patch corresponding with this on the right side.
The symphysis was pigmented, and here there was a whorled design
similar to that on the skin of the Blue Whale as described above.
The upper lips and the lower side of the anterior end of the rostrum
were nearly black, and were finely tuberculated. The inner (palmar)
surface of the pectoral fins was pale, streaky, greenish grey, with
black streaks intermingling with the less dark flecks. The right side
was a dark grey, nearly black. This may have been due to the fact
that the right side had been more exposed to the sun than the left side
as the animal lay at the buoy.

The ear aperture was small. The tongue presented an area which
could be more readily recognised as the dorsal surface than in the
case of the Finners. '

4. Humpback (Megaptera longimana, Rud.).

Katernal Characters.—The form of the single specimen taken was
robust, reminding one somewhat of the figure of the Sperm Whale.
The dorsal fin was placed far back and was much falcated, and of
moderate height. The colour was slate-chocolate, but very dark,
almost black. Pure white, splashed, ring-like marks occurred on the
lower jaw and on the dorsal side of the pectoral fin. The outer sides
of the right mandible and of the right upper jaw were white, but
on the left only the inner sides were unpigmented. The ventral
surface of the flukes was white. The ventral folds were few in
number (23), and wide; running up the centre of each groove was
a low ridge about °375 in. high, of triangular section. The folds
were about 4 in. wide and 5 in. apart. The median fold, with the
next on each side, also the fold next the right pectoral fin, were mere
narrow grooves.

There was a deep groove running from the angle of the jaw
downwards and backwards to a point about one-third of the width
of the pectoral fin from its anterior margin. Another groove ran
from a point a little above and in advance of the termination of this
groove to a point somewhat behind the posterior margin of the
pectoral, and a little above it. Unlike the small external auditory
aperture of the Balenopterids the opening in this specimen was
8 in. long. The upper surface of the snout had the characteristic
knobs of the species. In the mid-dorsal line there were five, the
first being 11 in. from the tip of the snout, and the last 13} in. from the
spiracle. The spaces between the knobs, running from the snout, were
103, 18, 123, 234 in. respectively. There were also two series of

134 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

lateral knobs, following the margins of the rostrum, nine on each side
in a consecutive row. Inside these rows, at their posterior ends,
was a second series of four knobs on each side. The knobs of the
inner, short row were set beside those of the outer row, forming
pairs with them. But the two sides were not symmetrical. Thus,
if the knobs of the outer row are numbered 1 to 9 from before back-
wards, on the left side 7, 8, and 9 were paired, and there was a
single knob of the inner row behind the termination of the outer
series. On the right side 6, 7, 8, and 9 were paired, and
there was no unpaired knob posteriorly. Several of the left-side
knobs had a hair on the summit, which suggests that the knobs may
be overgrown hair-papille, and their arrangement does correspond
fairly closely with the arrangement of the hairs of Balenoptera. On
the symphysis there were four knobs on the right side and five on
the left. In each case there was a vertical row of three. The knobs
varied in size, a large one being 2 in. high and 4 in. across the base.

The eye appears to be rather more movable than in Balenoptera.
The pectoral fin has an exceedingly irregular posterior margin. There
were seven conspicuous elevations on it, varying in length from
10 to 27 in.

5. Sperm Whale (P. macrocephalus, L.).

(a) Haternal Characters.—Six specimens were examined. The
general body-colour is pale greyish chocolate, rather more lead-like
ventrally. Between the genital aperture and the umbilicus there is
a splashed chevron-shaped mark of a pale grey colour. The apex
is on the umbilicus, and directed forwards, the ‘ arms’ being about
4 ft. apart at the tips. There are also irregular grey flecks all
over the ventral surface. In some specimens the front of the head
is barred horizontally with streaks which are almost white in colour.
They are broadest in the middle and taper towards the ends. The
whole of the head, and in particular the anterior, ventral, and lateral
areas, have numerous weals and sucker marks which have been pro-
duced by the arms and suckers of the cuttlefish, which are the main
food of this species. As might be expected from the fact that the
suckers of many of the molluscs are armed with chitinous teeth, the
sucker marks take the form of rings of minute pricks. One such
mark was 34 in. across. The fifth Sperm Whale had a large patch
of pure white on the umbilicus, and an extensive array of grey
streaks on the left side, in addition to the grey chevron.

(b) Spiracle.—In every case the left spiracle alone was functional.
On the right side, however, afterthe blubber has been removed, there is
a compressed cavity, approximately oval in shape, about 18 in. long
and 10 in. wide, in the position corresponding with that of the obliterated
right spiracle. The lining of this cavity is heavily pigmented with
the same colour as the outer surface of the animal. There can be
no doubt that this is the vestige of the right spiracle, although no
passage was observed running backwards from it in the direction of
the pharynx.

(c) Mouth.—The palate and floor of the mouth have a general
pale grey colour and have a large number of small grooves, about

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 135

an inch in length, running longitudinally. On the palate of the first
Sperm Whale there were two large dark blotches. That on the left
was about 8 in. long, that on the right 11 in.

(d) Tongue.—The tongue of Physeter affords a striking contrast
to that of a Mystacocete. It is an exceedingly hard, strong structure
of comparatively small size, and very nearly occludes the throat as the
animal lies on the plane with the jaw gaping open. The tongue
stands up from the jaw to a height of about 2 ft., and, as viewed
from the front, presents a smooth, round wall, like the side of a
section of wide tubing. The upper surface is wrinkled, and in front is
produced into a small projection, which appears to correspond with the
tip of the normal mammalian tongue. From its structure the tongue
would appear to be of use in preventing the ingress of water during
respiration, but in the dead animal, at any rate, this very fact of its
nearly closing the throat: gives the impression that the organ would be a
hindrance to the swallowing of large prey. That this cannot be the
case, however, is apparent from the size of the cuttlefish which we
found in the stomach of one specimen, as described in Section V.

(e) Teeth—Teeth occur in both jaws. Only those of the lower
jaw can, however, be of much practical value in the capture of food,
as the upper-jaw teeth are of small size, and often nearly covered
with soft tissue. The lower-jaw teeth are about twenty in number
on each side, and are arranged in pairs, but the two teeth of each
pair are not exactly opposite to one another.

Actual numbers of teeth in the different Sperm Whales examined :—

Number 15. . left side 21 right side 23
35 16" Sades 2 19 * 19
& 21 Z : a 20 plus 2 SG 21 plus 1
Sane Ae LPS :. eer
3 De. (ah: - 24 ae Riis
Pa ee Ms 20 + 21

The two most anterior teeth of each side project somewhat for-
ward, but the majority of the teeth are nearly vertical, being some-
what recurved in most cases and having a slight inclination outward.
The acuteness of the point is very variable, but this may be merely due
to differences in age of the animals. One tooth was seen which
had been broken off, but the stump did not appear to be at all decayed.
In the palate there is a hollow corresponding with each tooth of the
lower jaw, into which the latter fits when the mouth is shut.

The upper-jaw teeth are small, inclining backwards, and deeply
embedded in soft tissue, but they do have some little use, as is
demonstrated by the fact that in many cases they are much worn
down by contact with the lower-jaw teeth. The most posterior of
the latter are also very small, and of little use, occurring very far
back. There were no teeth in the upper jaw of Nos. 16 and 26.

Teeth in upper jaw—

Nomberlhy <9. . ., .. leftiside 5 right side 7
Pena MIR Ol, » oO » 0
os 21 8 a5 7
” 22 — 22 ps
7? 25 > 7 27 7
29 26 ”? 0 7 0

136 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

(f) Dorsal Fin.—The dorsal fin of the Sperm Whale consists of
a prominent elevation, which rises to a height of from 14 to 18 in.
above the line of the back. The fin is succeeded by a series of about
six much smaller prominences which decrease in size towards the
tail. None of these at all approaches the altitude of the dorsal fin.
They are, nevertheless, quite obvious. On the ventral surface the
keel of the caudal region is continued forwards towards the anus as
a much more definite ridge than in the Balenopterids.

(g) Flipper.—The shape of the flipper is somewhat variable. In
No. 21 the left pectoral appeared to have been damaged at some
period, as there was a large notch on the preaxial side of the tip.

(h) Spermaceti.—In every specimen the quantity of this substance
was large, usually constituting about one-third of the total oil yield
of a whale of this species. It occurs all over the body as well as in
the head, but no attention is paid to it except in the head, the rest
merely contributing to the general production of ‘sperm oil.’ In
the head there are three extensive cavities, an anterior single cavity
and two lateral cavities. They all occur in the interior of a huge
mass of exceedingly dense, fibrous connective tissue, which, when
drained of spermaceti, is of a snowy whiteness. This mass con-
stitutes the great bulk of the head, and rests upon the large cup-
like structure formed by the bones of the rostrum. The cavities
do not appear to possess definite linings, and when the oil runs out,
masses of light, spongy tissue filled with the liquid fat run out also,
as if they had been loosely attached to the walls of the cavity. They
are probably liberated by the instruments introduced through the wall
of the cavity in the process of tapping the spermaceti.

The following is the method of tapping. After the whale is flensed,
the body is cut off from the head, which is left lying on its side.
The whole head is covered by a thick coat of mixed muscle and
tendon running longitudinally. The tendons are conspicuous, and
may be removed in considerable lengths with little difficulty. The
cutting of the hole in this capsule is an arduous work, and may
occupy nearly an hour. A mid-dorsal and an anterior aperture are
made, and when the cavities have been penetrated, the spermaceti
runs out as if from a pipe. A movable wooden gutter is placed beneath
the hole, by means of which the oil is run into the two open boilers,
in which it is cooked.

Spermaceti is an almost colourless, transparent liquid, having a
pale yellow tinge. It has not any noticeable odour, and the flavour
is very faintly fishy, resembling that of a fresh duck ege. After
boiling, the oil has a dark yellow colour while liquid. When cold,
both before and after boiling, it sets stiff, but is not hard, the con-
sistency being about that of lard. The uses of this oil have been
indicated in the Introduction.

From the position of the spermaceti, and also of the blow-hole in
Physeter, the following function of the former may be suggested: The
food of the Sperm Whale is, in the main, composed of cuttlefish
such as Architeuthis. As these forms are bathypelagic, it follows
that the whales must descend to considerable depths to feed, and

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 137

remain submerged while feeding.? A very rapid ascent would be
exceedingly advantageous after a prolonged immersion, and the more
rapid the ascent which could be made the longer the immersion could
be continued. In order to be able to ascend as speedily as possible,
it would be of the greatest advantage to possess a large mass of some
material, having a lower specific gravity than that of water, which
would act as a float, and such a material spermaceti is. Moreover,
as the mass of the spermaceti is placed in the head, and as it is of
enormous size, even compared with the great mass of a Sperm Whale,
the animal will always ascend head first, and probably nearly verti-
cally, with the result that the first portion of the body to come
above the surface will be the upper edge of the snout, the precise
situation of the spiracle. It would appear, if this suggestion be
correct, that in order to descend and to maintain a submerged con-
dition, muscular exertion is necessary, whereas ascent is automatic,
and is merely accelerated by swimming movements. These two
points are in keeping with the habits of the whale as indicated above.
Tt is possible that the astounding feat which has been credited to
Physeter, that of hurling itself bodily out of the water, is really the
result of a hurried ascent from a considerable depth, which has been
so rapid that the animal has shot out of the water on reaching the
surface.

V.—Food of Different Species of Whale.

The stomachs of all the species of Mystacocetes examined con-
tained the remains of Meganyctiphanes norvegica (M. Sars), some-
times in immense quantities. Nothing else was ever seen, except
some fragments of flesh on one occasion, but there can be little doubt
that these had been driven into the stomach by the explosion of the
harpoon. No fish of any sort were seen in the stomachs of any of
these whales.®

The stomachs of the Sperm Whales invariably contained large
quantities of cuttlefish beaks, which might be readily divided into
large and small sizes, but, apart from size, there was nothing to
differentiate the two series of beaks (fig. 1). A practically complete
specimen of one of the molluscs was found in the stomach of No. 22
(the fourth Sperm Whale). The following measurements were taken
on this animal :—

Ft. in.
Meneth ofthe mantle! rs os.) 6 8 st a mt oe 2 2 6- 0
Circumference of mantle. . . . . . . . . 4 #0
Length of the eight shortarms . . . . . . . 6 O
“ qed HOME ClES fet 0 et ee tLe rt oer Made Olt 1 O
Length of tail . ‘ : ‘ ‘ q ‘ 3 5 ‘ Ae 7
Wadthrobesudalifinn. 5° sss ae ace ee: ee ol LOE
iDiameter/of largest. sucker’ =. 1.) 5 NS eR Oe

In addition to this specimen, we saw fragments of others of
approximately the same size. The following specimens were pre-
served: tip of tentacle, beak and radula in liquid, and a quantity of
beaks and part of an internal shell in the dry state. An examination

" Vide Burfleld, op. cit., p. 155 * Vide Burfield, op. cit., p. 178.

138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

of these remains leaves little doubt that the species is Architewthis
harveyi, Verrill °—the caudal fin was too much digested to indicate
whether it had been sagittate or not. The distal series of small, smooth
suckers are not now on the tentacle tip, but these again may have been

Fig, 1.—Architeuthis harveyi. Beak. Cire. +.

lost owing to the same cause. No soft parts of any of the smaller
cuttlefish were found.

The molluscs appear to be quite lively when swallowed, as there
are scars on the heads of the whales right up to the angle of the mouth.
These have been produced by the vain efforts of the molluscs to save
themselyes. Sucker-marks were seen on the inside of one of the whales’
stomachs. ‘Two or three jawbones of some species of predaceous fish
were found in the stomach of one Sperm Whale, but, except for these,
nothing but cuttlefish remains were ever noticed.

VI.—Notes ona Few Miscellaneous Specimens Preserved.

_ (a) One of the Norwegians gave us an object, taken from whale
No. 5 (Finner), which was stated to have been ‘ inside the ribs.’
This appears to be a pathological structure. It is a flattened, oblong
object about 24 in. long, and 2 in. wide, and about 2 in. thick. At
one point there seems to have been a peduncle. The entire specimen
has a very hard capsule of fibrous connective tissue, and is filled with
a more or less reticulate mass, containing what may have been a coagul-
able fluid. There is a certain amount of calcification in the outer layers
just beneath the capsule, and a little fat is visible on treatment with
Sudan III. The conclusion to which the structures observed point is
that this is a region of connective tissue, which has become infiltrated
with some pathological product, and has acquired the thick capsule in
consequence of its abnormal condition. The infiltrating material is very
varied, in some parts it takes magenta brilliantly, while in others it
stains in a very faint manner. The more brilliantly coloured tissue
appears more homogeneous than that which refuses to take the stain.
The colour of the capsule is dark brownish-grey, that of the contents
a deep cream (fig. 2, No. 1).

(b) There are numerous roundish glandular objects embedded in
the fat which lies in the mid-dorsal region of the body cavity of the
Finner and surrounds the great vessels. These are lymphatic glands.
One such specimen preserved is of very irregular shape. It is 14 in.
in greatest length and 14 in. in greatest breadth (fig. 2, No. 2).

* Trans, Coun. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 5, Pt. 1, p. 197 (1880).

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 139

(c) A number of greenish bodies were taken from a similar position
in the Sperm Whale. The specimens are about 2} in. long, about
2 in. wide, and # in. thick, at the thickest part. The histological
condition is exceedingly bad, as was to be expected from the general
state of all the Sperm Whales which we saw. ‘There is a connective-
tissue capsule, and a great mass of the body is composed of the
same tissue. There are two or three objects which may be sections
of medullated nerves, and a number of rather thick-walled blood-
vessels. No other structures can be recognised.

(d) The rectum of Physeter has an exceedingly well-developed
cuticular lining for the last four or six feet of its length. In the

Vig. 2.—1. Calcified Body, from Finner No. 5. 2. Lymphatic Gland, Finner.
3. Cysticercus, from Physeter. (All natural size.)

first specimen in which it was observed the lining was detached owing
to decomposition, but in a later example it was found to be attached
to the remainder of the intestinal wall. This lining is about 4 in.
thick. It has a pale yellow colour, and is of a consistency somewhat
resembling that of a very hard-boiled egg. It is laminated, and can
be readily split into layers. At irregular distances on the surface
are hollows, penetrating partly or completely through the lining. The
edges of these hollows have a puckered appearance. The line of
junction of this lining with the mucosa of the intestine is perfectly
sharp. The lining thins out very much just prior to its cessation,
and the edges of successive lamine are readily observed. The actual
thickness of the lining where it comes to an end is ts in. The colour
of the mucous membrane, which is fairly tough, is a dull pink, very
much stained with sepia. Longitudinal sections of this region at
the point of junction clearly show that this is a cuticle derived from
the stratified epithelium of the rectum. The cuticle comes to a
very abrupt termination, where it joins the mucosa, the line of

140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

junction being very obvious in the slides. The epithelial layer is
about half as thick as the cuticular.

VII.—Parasites.
1. External.

(a) Balenophilus wniselus (Aurivillius). We have nothing to add
to Burfield’s remarks on this species.?°

(b) Penella (Kov. and Dan.). This parasite was observed on few
of the whales examined, and only on the Finner. Three specimens
were preserved, which vary in length from 53 in. to 10 in. No
males were found as a result of the examination of these females.
We frequently found white scars upon the skin of B. musculus, which
were apparently healed wounds caused by Penella. The scars took the
form of small oval marks about 8, in. long and + in. wide. Beneath
the white area the epidermis is more firmly adherent than in other
parts of a preserved specimen, which supports the view that these
are healed wounds. We often found open wounds on the whales,
which had evidently been produced by this parasite.

All the Penella which we saw occurred at the beginning of the
season, and in the latter part of it only wounds from which the
Copepods had fallen were observed. It may therefore be suggested
that the period of attachment of the parasite to the whale is less
than a year.

(c) Coronula diadema (L.), &c. On the Humpback there were
large quantities of this species on the tips and especially on the
posterior margins of the flippers. They were also found on the
ventral furrows, and some small specimens were adhering behind
the penis.

A number of specimens of Conchoderma aurita (L.) occurred among
the Coronula, as well as a good number of small specimens of Cyamus,
which last parasite was also generally scattered over the head region.
On Physeter No. 15 four specimens of Cyamus were also found on
the throat region, where there are a few short wrinkles. On the tip
of the lower jaw of Sperm Whale No. 16 there was a small colony
of Conchoderma aurita, while another specimen of the same species
was taken from the second tooth of the left side of the lower jaw of
Sperm Whale No. 25.

2. Internal.

(a) Trematodes.—Monostomum plicatum (Creplin) was found in the
intestines of the following Finners: 1, 3, 19, 23, 24, 27, 30.

(b) Nematodes.—We found nematodes, which appear to be of the
genus Ascaris, in the stomachs of every Sperm Whale examined.
They are generally very abundant. In the renal vein of the Megaptera
the mass of nematodes described later was found, and in the posterior
vena cava of B. sibbaldti, No. 33, a solitary, incomplete specimen of
another nematode was taken. These worms all appear to belong to
the Strongylide. As mentioned later, in the digitate structure observed
in the veins of B. musculus nematode eggs were found, as was also

10 Op. cit., p. 179.

+
e

sae ats

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] [Puate IIT,

2
4°

wae

YY Wall of Vena cave.

Fic. 3.—Digitate form of Pathological Structure caused by Nematode Worms.

Direction of blood stream.

~<-

Illustrating the Report on Belmullet Whaling Station.
[To face page 141.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 14]

the case in the neighbourhood of the mass of the worms found in the
Humpback.

B. musculus, Echinorhynchus porrigens (Rudolphi), new host.

B. sibbaldit 2 porrigens in small intestine, new host.
- e. brevicollis (Malm).
M. longimana ‘5 porrigens, large intestine.
P. macrocephalus Pr capitatus (von Linstow), new host.
: “3 Ks brevicollis (Malm).

(d) Cestodes—One of the Norwegians drew our attention to a
large number of soft white bodies embedded in the blubber of one
of the Sperm Whales. They occurred in a more or less irregular
manner at a depth of from 13 to 6 in. from the outer surface. Hach
body is enclosed in a cyst with fibrous walls from which it is readily
detached. The accompanying figure (fig. 2, No. 3) is taken from a
specimen in good condition and undistorted. Sections of these bodies
clearly demonstrate that they are the cysticercus stage of some Cestode.
The proscolex occurs at one of the poles of the long axis. The
Prince of Monaco’s account of the capture of a Sperm Whale off the
Azores in 1895 mentions numerous cysticerci in the blubber of that
animal, which are probably identical with those here described.”

(e) Structure found in the renal veins and posterior vena cava
(see figs. 3 and 4),

In whale No. 8 3, while searching for the suprarenal, we came
across a series of short, digitate processes, hanging into the lumen
of the vena cava at the point of entrance of the renal vein. A similar
structure occurred in whales Nos. 12 3, 13d, 27 3, 302, 324, all
Finners. In two of the Blue Whales, Nos. 17 2 and 33 2, it was
also present, as well as in Megaptera, No. 28 ¢, but in the last in
a somewhat different form. In some specimens, owing to the manner
in which the kidney was cut away from the body in removing the
entrails, it was impossible to say whether the structure had been
present or not. No trace of it was found in any of the Sperm Whales

examined.
; The specimens preserved are four in number, all differing from
one another. The accompanying figures show the two larger speci-
mens. Fig. 3 is an example of the most digitate form. This
specimen is not actually in the renal vein, but projects from the wall
of the vena cava close to the point of entrance of the renal vein.
The digitate processes are not actually tubular, but contain cavities,
- which in the free ends are nearly continuous, so that the whole
process is here practically a blind sac. The diameter of the processes
increases from the free end towards the wall of the vena cava. The
digitations unite at the point of attachment, and the structure thus
formed is continued beyond the wall of the vein towards the kidney.
Tt is most unfortunate that we were unable to preserve a specimen

™ Vide A. E. Shipley, Archives de Parasitologie, If., No. 2, p. 262, 1899.
* Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist., Paris, t. 1, p. 308, 1895.

142 BEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

sufficiently large to show whether there is an actual connection with
the kidney itself. But from notes taken at the Station, I find that
in one of the Blue Whales this structure was followed up, and that
branches of the renal vein were found blocked by it in the proximal
region of the kidney. This was also the case in the Humpback,
No. 28.

The interior of the digitations shows the cavities above mentioned,
separated from each other by walls of connective tissue continuous
with the tissue of the walls of the tube. In section the wall is seen
to be composed of fibrous connective tissue very dense externally,
but more open in the inner layers, where there are also some nodules
of lymphoid tissue. The partitions between adjacent cavities come
off from the inner layers of the outer wall. There are a few blood-
vessels in these structures. The cavities are filled with material which
varies in consistency from that of a rather stiff pulp to a stony hard-
ness. In the latter case the material contains a varying amount of
inorganic salts, chiefly calcium phosphate, of which there may be as
much as 80 per cent. present. These concretions are very hard in
the fully calcified condition, and are rounded in form in the Finners,
but more rod-like in specimens taken from a Blue Whale and the
Humpback. The soft material varies in its composition. In its
softest state it is easily teased out in water, and is then seen to be
composed of a mass of nematode eggs. Although the shells are
very thick, and resist the action of pure nitric acid and of strong
alkali, they are very transparent, and embryos may be seen in their
interiors in stages of development varying from morula-like masses
to small coiled worms. In the partially calcified material it is still
possible to separate by teasing numbers of these ova, which are
here covered with the calcium deposit. On the application of mineral
acid the inorganic material dissolves away, leaving the ova distinctly
recognisable as such.

Fig. 4 shows a specimen which is confined to the renal vein, and
has no digitations hanging into the vena cava. There is a single
cylindrical body about 6 in. long attached to the wall of the
renal vein by strap-like bands of varying breadth tapering somewhat
towards their junctions with the body. Sections of this body show
the thick wall, partitions, and congregations of ova, as described above.
The ova appear to be embedded in a matrix nearly homogeneous, but
containing numerous small rounded bodies, which stain daxkly with
Ehrlich’s hematoxylin. They may be nuclei, and in that case indicate
that the matrix is probably cellular. In the renal vein of Megaptera a
mass of tissue was found of an elongated form, and containing hard
calcareous material together with a number of tangled nematode worms,
which appear to belong to the family Strongylide. The worms were
mostly enveloped in sheathing tissue attached to the wall of the vein, but
the sheath was not always complete.

There can be little doubt that the presence of these worms affords
the key to the formation of the growths described above. It is known
that the presence in a vein of any object the surface of which is
not smooth, or of lesions of the intima of a blood-vessel, produces

[Prater LY.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.)

“SLNIWHIVLLY

—

THNLINULS

‘FOIK) “pouaqoysoroy ATYSYG ‘sopozvwmoyy Aq posnvo simyonayg posopug Surmoys ‘pouado ura, [euay—F

VAWI WN3A OL

OLE

Illustrating the Report on Belmullet Whaling Station.

[To face page 142,

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 143

a thrombus, which may in the course of time become organised.’
The organisation takes the form of a proliferation of the fibrous tissue
of the blood-vessel wall, which in the course of time entirely replaces
the thrombus. This tissue may be supplied with blood-vessels.
Thrombi may become calcified, and the deposition of calcium salts
is one of the striking features of the structures under consideration.
Again, metazoan parasites have been known to cause thrombi,’* and
in the cases before us it is highly probable that the nematodes have
produced vascular lesion, or the mere presence of the eggs may have
been sufficient to excite coagulation of the blood. From either of
these causes the thrombi may have been formed, becoming subse-
quently organised. It is interesting to note in this connection that
pedunculated, if not digitated, thrombi have occurred in the human
subject. The thrombus in Megaptera appears to have actually enclosed
the worms which caused it, and they have been retained by the
subsequent organisation.
VIII.—F eiuses.

B. musculus.—None of the foetuses examined by us were sutti-
ciently small to be of use for embryological purposes. They were all
perfectly formed, and even in the smallest (3 ft. 11 in.) the ventral
furrows of the adult were represented by mere lines.

Table VI. contains a list of the foetuses, and a detailed list of
measurements will be found in Table XII. It may be noted that
the 8 ft. foetus of No. 80 was mutilated by some of the workers
before we arrived on the scene, while that of No. 31 was destroyed
before the female was opened, apparently by the harpoon explosion.
The sizes of both of these are therefore estimates only. The fcetus
of No. 47 (9 ft. 4 in.) was in a hopeless state of decomposition, and
very few measurements could be taken upon it.

(a) Body form.—In all the fcetuses which we saw the form was
_the same as in the adult, but in the smallest it was noticeably more
robust.

(b) Colouration.—This character does not differ from that of the
adult animals. The dark tint is found in the same situations. The
smaller foetuses are very much less pigmented. In the 3 ft. 11 in.
foetus the whole skin was gorged with blood, and the black colour
was confined to the following localities: back, tip of dorsal fin, tip
of flippers, tips of flukes, tip of rostrum, and symphysis.

B. sibbaldii.—One specimen, 7 ft. 7 in. in length, was seen. The
upper surface was pale grey, the distal part of the dorsal fin and
the external mouth parts were stained with black.

IX.—Breeding Season of the Balenopterids.

A factor which may be used in attempting to ascertain the probable
breeding season of the large whales is the sizes of the foetuses observed
at different times. Leaving for this purpose the Blue Whale out of

** Macfarlane, Text Book of Pathology, 1904 ed. . 107-8. Green, Manual
of Pathology, 1th ed., p. pe ii sii :
“* Green, op. cit., p. 389.

144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

account, because very few of this species have been seen in the pregnant
condition, the six foetuses which we saw have the following dimensions :

Ft. in.

July 15 15 0

Aug. 7 Sv

eee aC 4. 40

acl 7 10

Sept. 4 3 11
9 &4 =

Burfield’s table of foetuses observed in 1911 is as follows :—

Ft. in.

July 12 8 ll
» 16 4 11
» 20 8 5
» 24 6 0
Aug. 7 5 6
sr L 9° 0
Sept. 10 S0
» 18 9° 33

The young whale appears to be about 20 ft. long when born.
If the size of the fcetus is proportional to the length of gestation
which has elapsed since pairing until the time when the fcetus is
measured, and if the period of gestation is ten months,’® then the
foetuses found must have been the result of pairings at approximately
the times given opposite each in the table which follows :—

Ft. in.
July 15 . 15 0 age 74 months, pairing took place December—January.
At lipase) Ole san 55 5 = April (beginning).
» 7 4 0) '),-2 » 9 » June.
en 7 10 S74 a 3 sf April (end).
Sept. 4 Sl. Si2 $3 M » duly (beginning).
2 9 4 ” 5 ” ” ” May.

Pursuing the same idea with the 1911 fcetuses, we have :—

It. in.

July 12 8 11 age 4} months, pairing took place March (beginning).
5, 16 4 AL. ys 2k a5 55 BS May (beginning).
pees) 8 5 ,, 4% A ¥ at March (beginning).
ae A Ge Ores ss 3 mr April (end).

Aug. 7 DRO ats bs 5 May.
ape! OPO as BD fs # = March-April.

Sept. 10 95°20 5 2 58 “s re May (beginning).
ls OS to sae #5 =p 6 May.

These times can only be regarded as approximate, even if the
premises upon which they are based be correct. It is, howeyer,
suggested by this table that pairing may take place at any time
between the end of December (the first in the 1913 series) and the
beginning of July (fifth in the 1913 table), at intervals of roughly
two months. This would indicate that the Balenopterids are, at any
rate, polycestrous, and in season in December (February ?), April, and
June. All females would not be fit for breeding actually simultane-
ously, but the precise time would vary for different individuals, and

*% Burfield, op. cit., p. 155.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 145

this would account for some pairings occurring at such times as the
beginning of July or the beginning of May.

Such cases would belong to the June and April cestra respectively.
It is probable that such an arrangement would be advantageous.
As the whale is a pelagic animal and individuals are widely separated,
a frequently recurring breeding condition would be of great advantage to
an animal in which pairing is to a greater or less extent casual. The
above suggestion, which was originated by Mr. Daniel, appears to afford
a possible explanation of the extraordinary variability in the sizes of the
foetuses, apparently without regard to the season, a circumstance which
the idea of a definite moncestrous cundition does not elucidate. (It is
interesting to note that on June 18, 1918, at the Inishkea Station a
feetus only 5 in. long was found, which must have been but a week or
two old, i.e., of the June pairing, according to the preceding method
of reckoning the pairing times. It was, most unfortunately, not possible
to preserve it.)

X.—Additional Notes.

(a) Hatinction.—The whalemen state that of the whales which
they see they are able to take only about one in ten. The animals
are therefore perhaps not in immediate danger of being actually killed
out. The most serious risk lies in the fact that the largest, and-
therefore the adult, whales are being exterminated. True gives as the
minimum length of adult animals 55 ft. 7 in., as no pregnant females of
less dimensions have been recorded. Now the whalers will take any-
thing over 40 ft., with the result that the animals which have attained
sexual maturity are in the gravest*danger of being killed out. That the
largest whales are being exterminated, the fall in general size at Blacksod
between 1911 and 1913 may indicate. This means that the whales
which are capable of reproduction are being destroyed. By the time
that it is no longer profitable to hunt whales,'® it appears likely that the
adults will have been so thinned out that they will no longer be able to
reproduce with sufficient profusion to compensate for natural casualties.
When this occurs the whales will be well within sight of extinction.

(b) Capture of Blue Whales.—Of all the species which it is profit-
able to pursue the whalers state that the Blue Whale is the wildest,
and they will not hunt this species if other game is to be had. A
Blue Whale on perceiving the pulsations of the propeller of the
approaching steamer is usually startled, and, if alarmed, at once
rushes off at full speed. Since this represents something like twenty
miles per hour, it is quite useless for the boat to pursue the fleeing
animal, the speed of the steamer being only ten or twelve miles per
hour. When the whalers are bent on catching a Blue Whale, it is
- sometimes necessary to accompany the animal for three or four days,

until it becomes accustomed to the presence of the steamer, which can
then approach within range, and the whale is speedily disillusioned as
to the harmlessness of the now familiar object.

(c) Migration Movements.—During the earlier part of the season
the Mystacocetes are stated to travel in a north-easterly direction,

* Burfield, op. cit., p. 153.

1914. L

146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

during the later part in a south-westerly. If this be so, it may be
concluded that the latter is the return journey of those whales which
have passed north in the beginning of the season.

_ The solitary Humpback, taken on July 25, was moving in a direc-
tion the reverse of that which the Finners and Blue Whales were
pursuing at the same time.

The only Sejhval which was captured was brought in on Septem-
ber 6, a fact which is to be noted in connection with the whalers’
statement to Burfield,!’? that the Sejhval disappears by the end of June.

The following is the explanation which the whalers give of
the occurrence of Sperm Whales in these Northern waters. In the
Southern seas each adult male is the leader of a herd of females, and
as the young bulls approach maturity they are driven off by the old
leader. These young bulls do not become leaders of herds, as they are
inferior in strength and size to the fully adult males. But when fully
grown they seek out herds, and contend with the leaders for the
possession of the females. If the old males are then driven off, they
become solitary wanderers, and frequently travel up into the North
Atlantic. In connection with this theory it may be mentioned that
the Sperm Whales taken at Blacksod and Inishkea are all males, and
of great size for Sperm Whales, which seldom exceed 60 ft., the
‘average for the ten Blacksod specimens being 57 {t. 34 in., while
the smallest was 53 ft.

TaBLE I.—B. musculus. ‘Table of Specimens Taken.

Number | Date when Sox Total Kwumber Date when Sox Total
of Whale] Measured ; Length || of Whale] Measured Length
Ft. in, Ft. in.
— May 16 — 59 6) 14 July 5 12) 54 7
= “P28 — 62 6] 18 5- il fe) 59 4
— » ol — 59 6 | 19 Ae! 15) oe) 67 63
== June 14 — 61 6|| 20 53 LS 3 59 3
= » 19 — 6L 0 || 4.22 » 20 9 48 7
— > 20 — 53 0} 24 Pree’) 2 SBI ay
= sue — 68 6 || 27 97 ~25 3 66 «0 |
<== Py — 61 6) 29 Aug. 5 2 57. 5
= me — 64 6 30 re 7 oe) 69 #8
— seu ae — 64 6 | 31 ae oad Q 65 60
— ~ eee) — 64 6 32 <5 OG 3 yi a
1 » 26 Q 69 4 35 7 BT Q 63 3
2 > 26 fe) 50 (67 36 BwiBsLhp. se 58 «5
3 3 28 3 64 1] 387 55 29 Q 62° 3
4 Paes) é 63 «1 38 a 29 Q Dar 2
5 oO é 64 O 39 » 30 3 58 3
6 9 30 ce) 66 9) £40 » 30 | 2 60 8
7 July 2 3 61 0O 41 Sept. 1 | 3 56 2
8 eee: & 62 0 42 Sh Acoiaass 61 6
9 wie 3 60 0 43 ere! fe) 59 10
10 es é Stay Ps 44 a 3 52 10
11 ten) 3 58 1 45 x OD 3 58 0
12 »» ont 3 55 =O 47 pes a Sl ce) 62 8
13 » «4 é 46 7 48 vias 3 638 5

1” Op. cit., p. 154.

BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 147

Tasie II.—B. sibbaldii. List of Specimens.

Number | Date when

| Se Total | Number | Date when | S Total
of Whale} Measured 4 Length | of Whale) Measured | he Length
| Ft. in. | | Ft. in.

17 July10 | Q@ |78 2 34 Aug. 20 2 68 6

33 Aug. 18.0) / OF | 10-7 49 Sept. 9 Q | 68 0

TaBuE IIT.—B. borealis. One Specimen.

ae Date when Measured Sex De gets

46 Sept. 6 is) 46 7

Taste [V.—WM. longimana. One Specimen.

Number of Total Length

Whale Date when Measured Sex His! in
28 July 25 3 45 8
TaBLE V.—Physeter macrocephalus. List of Specimens Taken.
Number | Date when Sox Total r Nuinber | Date when S Total
of Whale, Measured . Length || of Whale} Measured ‘be Length
| Ft. in. | Ft. in.
a May26 | ¢ 57 9 16 July 9 guy nee ts
— See Net 6l 4 21 »! 16 6 |60 6
— Pier) El rs 62 6 22 a 8 é by fae BS:
— June 14 re 60 5 25 fy eB 3} 53 OOO
HOA | duly 8.5) 57 5) 26 2D 3 56 2

Taste VI.—Feetuses. B. musculus.

No. of Date when ae Total
Parent Measured Length
Ft. in.

19 July 15 | 3 15 0

30 PATO a) | 2? 8 0 (cire.)

31 BSS ea — 4 0 (cire.)

35 per al Q 7 #10

43 | Sept. 4 3 a Uf

47 | Bye. 3 9 4

TasLe VII.—B. sibbaldti. One fcetus.
Total Length

No. of Parent Date when Measured Sex Ft. in.
33 Aug. 18 3 S770

1914.

STATE OF SCIENCE.

ON THE

REPORTS

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PEON | SE ‘ON | LION
Pa —eeneon

SMOIIN [VIZUGA FO TOQUINNT

qys1oy [woIEA “uy [esto
yysusy ‘uy pestoq
Yproiq ysozveris ‘uy [e10jooq
uy [eqoqoed jo YASue] URIpoy

: UOT}AasUr TOTIA}S0d 07 diy ‘uy [e1oyoed Jo yASuET

* UWOj1E8UT IolIEqUR 04 diy ‘uy [eIojo0d Jo YASuUET
* + ~SNOI[IGUIN JO UISIVUT IOTIOZUe 07 sOYNH JO YOON
snue Jo uIsivUt 1orseqsod 09 sayxNny Jo YORON

ainjiade iva Jo puo JoT1eyUR 07 oA Jo or} UAX)

- + + + + 9f9 Fo erqueo 03 mel fo stshyqdutg
7 + + + + gf@ Jo a13Ue0 04 Jnous Fo dry,
> + Ul [esiop Jo UoTYAesuT Io1103s0d 07 ynous jo dry,
* ul yetoqgoad jo worosut 1011eysod 09 qnous jo dry,

ajovatds 03 ynous jo dry,
yQsuey [e4O 7,

* gTRYM JO zaquinyy

153

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

¢- 38 ke Fe — See
§ 6 I 8 = 11 OLoes|
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£ 2 2 2
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9% ‘ON c% ON Zo ‘ON 1Z ‘ON

pal
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suownqum

07 snue

+s] UeMIoINsevop—"snpoydao0s00U sajashygJ— TIX

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* yjnour purgeq qsnf ‘eouerepuMoato ITV HY
[esiop ‘prey jo Wy5u0T
qysioy [VoIyIEA ‘uy [es10q

yysuoy ‘uy pesiog

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uy [etoqjood jo ASU] WeIpey

* UoTZAasUT IoT19}s0d 03 diy ‘ug [eroyoed Jo YZSUET

+ WOTJasUT IolIezUR 07 diy ‘uy [erojoed Jo YAZUET

“SHOTGUN JO UISIVU IOLI0}UB 07 SoYNY JO YOON

snue JO UIsIeU Io110}s0d 0} soyxn JO YOON

Yynow jo [sue 07 mel rtoMor yo dry,

Yynour jo ofsue 07 wel rzoddn jo dry,

* [esiop I0110qs0d 03 ynous jo yuOTT

[etoqoed ro11aqysod 03 ynous jo quo4y

* - ygBuay [eq07,

gTRYM Jo <oqunyy

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

154

colt oth colt
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dy 09 diy ‘soyny Jo yIPIA
qystey [voy10A ‘uy [es10g

yysue] ‘uy pesiog
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uy [v1ojood jo yySue] UeIpoy
uosesur ror1eysod 03 diy ‘uy peroqood yo y4Su0ry
UOT}IOSUT IOTIEzUR 07 dry ‘uy perojoed yo yySuET
SNOTIGUN JO ULHTVUL IOLIE{U 07 SOYNG Jo YORON

snue JO UIs1VUI IOTIO4SOd 09 soyNG Jo YON

oinyiede ro Jo puo r0r10,uUv 0} ofo Jo om4UED

* eho Jo oagueo 07 Mel go sishydurhg

* oef@ JO e1guUd0 07 ynous Jo dry,
uy [Bs1op JO UoMIOSUr 1OL10}80d 09 ynous jo dry,

uy perogoed jo uorresur 10110}s0d 07 nous jo dry,

ejovards 09 ynous jo diy,

qysue] [VO],

snje,T JO xog

queried JO Joqunyy

155

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

‘TIJSUS] 1890} JO sosvquooisd 07 paonper sjuotMeaNsvom = suolyJodorg x

19 | = OL 9L
Shs | OSS | 89S | BES
69-F 08-9 ZL-9 FOF
— | LES = BES
|
066 | 00-01 | 69-IT 19-6
68:4 198 00-6 LPS
PESZL | SSL | OST | OBIT
CO-Sh | 90-8F | 9S8F | F9-ZF
86-93 | LF8Z | F982 | 36-93
6cr | scp | 99 | BLP
€9-F% | 91-FS | 892 | FOS
80:61 SF8I | 99:06 | €0-8T
LOLL | SGLL | SPSL | LL-SL
szie | eee | osee | 1-62
OSS | seeT | 6GOT | IGFI
% | % % %
IT 8¢/0 09/0 %/|0 19
URS | OT | OAT | Uy oc
2 | P 2) e
Ol ‘ON 6 ‘ON | 8 “ON | 14 ON

|
89 tS Te = = pre 6 : * SMOIING [VIZUOA JO JOquIN\y
| LE&<S S6-T LEG LUG = 1 "5 ss qysrey [worse “uy [eso
3-9 66-L 00:4 £9-9 = Bey | ee Spe aet Sc TeeOKE
| PLS 16-3 OLS 80° ai igen Hence tote PRU DEELEY qsoqvois “uy [e10}00q
| £6 — —_— CL-6 = — 94 | + ‘ug pesoqood Jo yySu0] werpey
| ISL 06:8 Ti. air ak Tepe IP ee ee ee ee ee a wWorzAOsuUr
Joroysod 04 dy ‘ug yerojood jo yySuery
9€-I1 9F IT a €6-GI = om ‘to A aT aeipedaeas se UWOT41OSUr
Jowoyue 03 dy ‘uy yeroyood jo yQsueT
| 69:SP CS: FF FL‘8E 16:7 68° EP is Takeo) tO "pastry sate Shears are Se.
jo ulsi1eu JOTejUe 03 seXNY jo YOON
EL:FG ZG:SS PP LI GZ61 61:92 — * snue jo puso Ioj104s0d 04 soynp jo Yoon
$2-G 9¢-F 8z-S 9-2 — — eingiede 1vo Jo pus 10110q,Ue 09 949 Jo 9199)
SL-FZ a = oo — — (+ + eka Jo e1qu00 07 wef Jo stshydusg
CE-0Z — 19-02 19-06 — Ae |b ‘ * 9X9 Fo 1390 04 ynous Jo dry,
= LT-L9 9€:-69 69:L9 = = iy Ute NE ie AP eta ae Ae
[esiop Jo uoMsesuI 10110}80d 04 ynous jo dry,
| 12-GE 89:GE. | 9E-9G G¥6E ca ar tohtida "SY hi Thi ei oe
jo uoldsosut ro11aysod 0} ynous jo dry,
8P-9T €S-F1 = = = = *olesieod’ or ejovads 0} ynous jo dry,
% % % % % Yok. |
62 G9 )|:0 OL | T-eo:/: Tee P90" | Lie 08 | PS COL) +.) Se firetien th AMSBe Tee
UL Qt UL 9 Ur gt fOr ga Ur a | Or
é £ £ 2 a) Ga A
DicONT, STON ie ON | Gea aie, ONL iT Sie | eee e rir POM AT CCU
x SuoyIodorg “snpgnosnw ‘qg—"AX ATAV,

be tee, ee ieee ee id

—

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

156

69 LL 9¢ €L 89 6¢ a g9 IL 69 - ‘ i * SMOLINF [VIZUOA FO oq UN NY
LG-S IL'T 18-3 €8:1 6G 8&6 86-1 FL GPG 96-G e : : * 4ystoy [eorys0A ‘uy [es10q,
6L:P 99-F SF-¢ 80°¢ ILS FEL €6-P =a F6'8 L8:F ; . : A : * Wysug] ‘uy [es10q
$G-1 8L°G FL:G 89°S GL:G 68°§ FL:G €6-T GL:G 99°% ; : * —- yprerq 4soqvors “uy [e10j;00q
9F-8 88-01 OL IT GO IT 668 IL-O1 = 86 IIT GF OL ; E uy [eroqood Jo YySu9y. werpoy]
LOL €¢-8 £8 82:8 (1) i) 8¢'8 = 8¢°8 ¥6°8 19:8 ; e , : : : 3 UOT}IOSUT

Joweqysod 074 diy ‘ug jeroqood jo yQsueT
68°6 9OF-FL GLE1 L8:II F0°6 66:61 = 10-IT SLT $9-:0I | ° ; A 3 j ( 5 U01}.198UL
Jomoque 0, dy ‘ug yeroyood jo ySueT
LG-6€ 08-LE GO-€F =< LO-8P 86:GP OF-6F 90°LF 6-67 OL-Sh | * ; ‘ 4 ; ? “ snoiiqun
jO UISIVUL IOTIOJUe 0} SOYNY Jo yoRoN
86°86 9F-8S 19-1€ = 6F-86 EF LL-T€ 6L-LE $9-8Z 6¢-9Z | * snuB Jo pus JoL1e4s0d 03 soyny Jo YOON
6L:F €L's FG ¢9-G 8o-F ¢c0-¢ 68'F FS-G €¢-F L8:¥ einqjiede rea Jo pua ro11ezUe 07 aXe Jo 17MIN)
FE1S | FI-6L — zo-ez | e¢te | 1668 | Goes | Toss | OLEs | 9E%s | ° * Mo Jo omquso 04 Mef jo stsdqdudg
€6°LT 89:06 L881 6F-61 €8-61 FE1S — SL8I 98-61 60:06 | ° 4 a aXe Jo o13ue0 07 ynous jo dry,
€8:18 1G:9L 98-TL 18°8L 0€-8L 8-LL LG-LL 8&-9L EG:LL 8G-9L . . 3 : : - é * ug
[esiop JO UOTZAesUT 101104s0d 04 ynous jo dry,
89:66 €L-€€ 8L-0€ 6°€€ 0G-F€ L-€€ €8°GE &1E €L°GE PLE | * ‘ f 3 ; : * ug [e10z0ed
jO UwWonsosut 10110ys0d 03 gnous jo dry,
OFFI FEST 08°81 6:ST 66:ST 90-LT 99-F1 €@-§1 G6:ST ¢9-9T x . A ‘ apoertds 07 qnous jo dry,
% % % % % % % % % %
0 99\|L 8/14 8F/0 68/8 L9\F% O6S\/L lL O9F/O GG)s sg] - Y e . i * ygsuey (e407,
Ul UT UL a U9 Or a Oa UU aU

2 3} 5 2 rs) 3} 3b nz £ £
LG ‘ON | #6 ON | 8G “ON | 02 ‘ON | GI ON | ST ON | FT ON | ET ON | ZL ON | IT “ON | * s 4 i 3 * 9[84M JO toquin yy

(panuajuoo) suosodorg | ‘snjnosnu ‘g— AX AAV],

157

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

| |

9 ey ee oe | = 6¢ — #8 19 L9 "+ + = gmoraing [eIyUeA JO IoquINyT
LEG 98-T 96-1 L8T | 66-1 916 | 1&6 18-1 66'S — | * + + gysrey [eorjt0A “uy [esto
£6-F Ie-€ 799 | —-88-E | 66°¢ LLL | 840-9 FOF | STS SS wn |e A ee eee eee a SU] | enOLTT
96° 19° IL-3 | sg | we | 6e | — LG | 8IS-G 69-1 "+ + Yypeerq 48078013 “Uy TeI0}00q
£6°8 89-6 L801 | L6-01 | 92-6 10-or | — G6-L 80°61 FL6 ‘+ + ug Teroqood Jo 4ySuey Uerpey]

€8-L S18 906 | €%6 | 1¢8 92-8 = 60-6 cL8 0&-6 "en. a isc) a ee OT IGSE
| Jomeysod 04 diy ‘uy yeroyood jo y4sueT

Lol €L-I eG-CL | S881 PL&I €L-11 Fai L8°6 F011 OCT Fe eee CO osy
| qomaque oy dy ‘uy yeroqoad jo yQsue'T

FE-6F IG-8h | Go-9F | 8I-9F |= 69:2h- | NSG:LF. | \PSSP| OS ne GC:SP. nna Om Maine an eee goes
jO UIsIvUt IOTIAZUe 0} SOYN JO YOON
z0-8z | so6z | cOLe | 9623 | — | BSS | SLLB | OBS | FELZ | — _ | SUE Jo ULsreUT JOL1e}s0d 07 soYNG Jo YOHON
LO-F LOE 89-F | CEC 86| OFF Lae CO:F Fo:F EtF CLF ainjiede 19 JO puo IOT1oyUe OF EY) JO 919 9/)
08-33 | SL-F% = WGeEe” |) Mes 96:1 = LL-ES | 29-83 — |* + eke yo exqueo 07 wef zo siskyduikg
IGG | GL-06 = ee S6:61 | — | Il6T | S@-6I 6€:06 | OL-8I ZVIZ | ° °° efa Jo equa 04 qnous Jo dry,

ST-SL 86-91 89-9L ITLL | G&8L | ST-8L | S892 | 98-28 I¥-82 166k: | wiark fo, abr seeieod ne eee
[esdop JO UOTAesUT 10110}80d 0} ynous jo dry,

R : : . 5 . . * ug peroyood
| JO UoTtosut roTIe3s0d 03 gnous jo dry,

G 1)" 7”. Arle) Sapa TERE

~
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fur ag (UE Re UE a UE a Ur a UT a Ua U9 a |

é 2 6) é £ ONe ise 6 é é

aTey A jo Jeq TaN Ny

‘(panwyjuos) suoyaodorg 9 ‘snjnosnu “"g—"AX ATAVL,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

— cg 19 cL yt tes SMOTINE [eIgZUOA JO IOqUINNT

1-3 8-3 80% | 0% BBG st ts ss qystoy yeort0a ‘uy pesroq
68-9 81-9 6S BG FES See ee ere fs Rea 6 LAC
ELS 8-6 She | SLs L8-G ys 5 ss + ayprerq ysoyeors “uy [e10j00q
90-11 06-11 98-01 | 69:01 LoIT oo *° 7 7 tay perogoad yo qySue] werpayy
$08 = 608-8 €9°8 GL:8 i uorresur Ior1eysod 04 diy ‘uy yeroyood yo qySuorT
02-21 0€-ZI1 C6-FI 6L-ZI 0Z-ST f * UOT}AOSUT IOTIOzUL 04 diy ‘uy [eroqood Jo YAQSUET
S-9F 9€-9F 6F-LF 0€-9F CSIP * —* SNOTIG WIN Jo UISrevt Jo}LoyUL 04 soYNY JO TION
BOLE | O9LE L9-6% 18-08 96:08 °° — shue Jo upsreur Jol1oysod 0} soyny Jo YOION
gepeul| og@ >| eEp | 0z-¢ FOE * + gangtode rv Jo pus JoI1ezUe 07 oo Jo o17U9/)
Lo-bZ | | LO-ES 6983 | 9L-9% | 2oF °° * + * eka Jo axzua0 07 avel Jo sisMyduidg
OF-0% 3L-61 SL6I | 69-61 LLO’ = Tt * 0K FO OIZMIOD 09 Yous Jo dry,
oF-6L OL-8L 6£-6L 89°8L OF9L |" * Uy [es1Op Jo UOLJesUT Io;1eys0d 04 4nous Jo dry,
F0-kE 6G-£E £6-08 OF-ZE SFE ' * uy [erojoed yo uosesur 1O110}s0d 04 ynous jo dry,
6-91 99-91 ep | ee LL OT pov Pe pas se 8 888 9 “eroerids" oy a Home rere I,
70 (0) | (0) 70 |
gem hor ee Son: 6s CTO. Anpheyeel ees | et SMe aed Nei Sore Rei eT
am Os eS Oe a

CF ON | FP ON €F ON | GF ON Ty FON |e coe ee ee em OUNCE nub CLL

158

*(panurjuoo) suowiodoig ‘snynosnu "¢—' AK WAV],

159

- BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

€G | LY | £9 09 bd | 69 c > s ; : Y SMOTING [eajyuoA jo 19q Tin Ny
Or’ | LEP || FET L6: 88° GOT |" * * * * * — gystey peorzea ‘uy peso,
GS-01 / 80-9 6-E CGF OS 108i | sy Pa ye ee a oe st ene
08h } 89-3 F6-€ 10-F moe | ove | °° °° + + Ugpeerq qsoqeor8 “ug perojoeg
B6-L3 ! FE-81 66-3I | €@FL | SLZI | 8OTT |* * * * * * Uy peroq0ed Jo yySuez Werpeyy
CEES Z0-0T aoe GE 89-II OL-II 6-6 5 uoT4208UT IoTIB{S0d 03 diy ‘uy peroyood Jo yASUET
8-18 | 1e-F1 | LE6L | 6GLLT | BELT | €6€T | °° wososur sorseyUe 07 diy ‘uy [eroqoed Jo WySu0T
69-0F | 10-LF | 1¢-9F | esr | coor | FOGR * —~ snomquin yo U1SseUT soproyUE 07 soYNG Jo YOON
16-83 1-93 | 9986 | 48S | EBLZ | 9T8Z | *° ° — snue Jo uIs1eUT JoT10ys0d 04 soyNy Jo Yo}ON
G69:G | 8I-g 06°F CLF 09:F _— : : ainqaade eo jO puso IoT1eqUe OF ako JO 1,9)
92-6 £8-F3 FL#Z | GO93 | 1963 | soe |* * * * + ofa Jo argued 09 mel zo sishydurhg
60-9 88-08 98-61 | 9:16 | 6FIZ | 9F0G |* * * * * * @fe Jo caged 09 qnous jo dry,
T¢-L9 } 9F-OL GLéL | €LLL | I@LL | S#SS | * * UY [esIOp Jo UOIyJo8UT JOTIe4s0d 04 ynous Jo dry,
F6-€8 8-88 OLE | SBS | OOFE | ELSE | * Uy [erozood yo uorresuT so110}sod 0} ynous jo dry,
) a1 9F-9T LT-6L | ILSt | 9821 ae Al sr oe Spoends Oy qriome yorunn,
| /O | /O /O 40 {Oo oO
/ 8 oF Lt Ok O° 89/9 “SOL 1 OL PO Shi. ot) Mien Dees marg mpnemeeneg,
‘Ul VA | ur ag ur ME UL Wa Ur ag Ur
= [see Bienes 22 = = = = —— \ = — or ez
2 | é é é é |
8% ‘ON : OF ‘ON GF ON | PEON | SEONG ATOM | tt te | orem go aeq UIT NT
‘nununrbuo) vsajgdoba py *S810a.L0q “{ “apqnqgqus “_ —suonrodorg

THIAX @T4V,L

‘TITAX 21av

TAX DTIavyE

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF scieNcH.—1914.

160

9:8 19-8 —— +16 . . . . A 5 * qnous Jo [3PIM
So-ST F081 = GF-LI * + -Yynoul Jo pus IoT1ej,Ue 4e “pay Jo WYSIO]
€9-9E OT-9§ — = ‘5 5 ss Tesdop ‘prey jo yysue'T
1S-f 60:E 10:3 €0:3 lg i ie ee qYSIoY [Voya0A ‘uy [esI0d
bL-9 0€-L 68°8 PSL "ee Meera m MF anne ee Yysuel ‘uy [es1oq.
GS-7 IL? TEP SL:F ; 2 f oa * YYpeeiq 4ysozeors ‘uy [v10j0eg
09-9 90:9 Sob LG-8 ‘+ + + + ug Jeroqgood Jo W4Sus, UBIpeTT
FL 8L-S LLG 96:9 * UOTjAesUT Io11e}s0d 03 diy ‘uy [erojood jo y45UeT
FS-L 89-L £0-6 ¥1L6 * UOT}IesUT IOTIO}Ue 07 diy ‘uy [eroqoed Jo yySUET
GE-EE CPSP 1S-97 = “SHOTIQUN JO UISIVU IOTIO}Ue 07 SoYNG JO YoION
89:°&6 FE-66 FE-EE = : snue JO UTSIvUE 101103s0d 0} sayNy JO YOON
(2)LT-3% GS-LT FELT C8-LT "+ + ygnour Jo apsue 07 Mel romor Jo dry,
PSG F0:81 SL-LI — * + + -yqnout jo efsuv 074 Mel roddn jo dry,
PP69 68:89 LL-69 F9-69 - + + + ‘Tesrop Ior1eyzsod 07 ynous Jo QUOT,
€0:1F FLIP 96°GP 08: 1F : : * _ ,eroqoed rIot1eysod 07 ynous Jo yuo
% % % %
0 & 9 09 € 9g ¢ ug "SD FREE NE ROSS I ee ee er a Ree
ea nL Ur "4 ‘Ur “44 ‘Ur “AT
‘3 2 e £
GG “ON 16 “ON 91 “ON ST “ON : ; ; ; ; * 9[eTM JO toqumn yy
‘suoijiodorg § *(""J) snzoydas0101. um Lagasiyg—X1X TIAVI,

161

BELMULLET WHALING STATION.

(gurez) | |

€8 — ze 6F Le ee :
80-82 _ PL-61 ee a ea Co
60°1 Z1-2 Z1-3 Cre. se = eee
L9-F GZ-9 &S-€ BE | 999 | *
3L-F are 18-2 {Gaal = eae 2
ZO-F1 19-11 ¥9-01 £9-01 — | oger |:
I8-T1 Z8-6 o8-6 F0°6 — Matis as:
8¢-LI 19°31 9L-Z1 Z8-€1 _ rect | °
88:09 — 10-9F coor |. — oo-sr | *
18-18 ~ FE-8Z FO-LZ _ 19-83 | °
98-9 -— 16-9 CL ee :
88-02 ~ FL-0Z 10-12 — | scos |°
89-81 — 9] eet seat | = red
6F LL — | Lem 991 [0 = we, |°
LO-LE — | sree | seo8 oo esez |.
PLEL Sr el) eet Hg 4S Rl See

/0 /O /0 /0 | /0 /O
pai > 6 in Nie hs a ee: ame
UL “UE ce i a CE

re) £ . 2 3} ra) 2
£€ ‘ON LON | Gh ON | SEN | OF ON | GI oN: fe:

7 5s Fs sMOTING [eIQUAA JO TAaqUIN|y |

Se ORT as a Ree eer Oc ING
ce eS or qyS1ey peors0a ‘uy es10qy

. . . . . . . q3ue] ‘uy [es10q |

‘5 5 + + -Gyprarq ysezReIs ‘uy [eI0jQ00g
‘5 5 + + uy [erojoed Jo YASue], UeIpey,
* uoTyJesur 1oT1e3s0d 04 diy ‘uy [e1ojood jo YAousT
* UolZ1osUT JoleyUR 07 diy ‘uy [eIoyood Jo YASUI]
* SNOTIQUIN JO UISIVUI IOTIEzUe 07 SeXNG JO TOON

snue JO UIHIVUL IOT10}s0d 04 sayny JO YOON

* gangaade ive Jo pue Iol1eyue 04 940 Jo 91980,

- + + + 9f9 Jo aaqueo 09 mel Jo stsAydutg |

- + + + + 99 Jo a13U90 0} ynous jo dry,
* uy [esiop Jo Uordesut 1o11e}s0d 04 ynous jo dry,
uy [e1oyoed yo uoAesut IoTIays0d 04 ynous jo dry, |
a c : > C * gjovards 03 ynous jo dry,

. . . . . . . . Liptsiic)| [e107],

z é c ¢ - m - quoaeg jo ‘ON |

“pyoqgqs °F
TXX T1avL,

*SNINISNUL "J

xx A geen SON som ae I

sH
ional
lop)
Ll

162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.--1914.

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. 8. GoopRIcH
(Chairman), Dr. J. H. AsHworrs (Secretary), Sir EK. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor W. C. McIntosu, Dr. 8. F. HARMER,
Professor §. J. Hickson, Mr. G. P. Brpper, Dr. W. B.
Harpy, and Dr. A. D. WALLER.

Tue British Association table at Naples has been occupied since the
beginning of October 1913 by the Hon. Mary EH. Palk, and trom
March 17 to April 15, 1914, by Mrs. H. L. M. Pixell-Goodrich. An
application for the use of the table in September and October has been
received from Mr. J. Mangan, M.A., Government School of Medicine,
Cairo.

The following reports have been received :—

The Hon. Mary E. Palk reports: ‘ I have occupied the Naples table
of the British Association since October last. I have been engaged on
a revision of Professor Anton Dohrn’s monograph of the Pycnogonida
of the Bay of Naples. The work is slow because of the difficulty of
preparing these animals, and the modifications I have made to Dr.
Dohrn’s work are chiefly histological. I have been unsuccessful in
my attempts to study the habits of the living animal. I do not yet feel
justified in publishing the results of my researches, as most of my
conjectures require further proof, which it is not always easy to obtain.’

Mrs. H. L. M. Pixell-Goodrich reports: From March 17 to April 15,
1914, I occupied the British Association table at the Stazione Zoologica,
Naples. During this time I searched for parasitic Protozoa in various
marine invertebrates, and investigated chiefly stages in the development
and sporogony of Lithocystis and Urospora of Hchinocardium cordatum
and Gonospora of Glycera siphonostoma. The results of these researches
I hope shortly to publish.’

The Committee being wishful to encourage zoologists and physi-
ologists to apply for the use of the table, and believing they are often
deterred from applying by an exaggerated idea of the expense involved,
prepared a statement giving an estimate of the cost of going to and
living in Naples. A copy of this statement was sent to every zoological
laboratory and most of the physiological laboratories in the United
Kingdom. It is hoped that increased use will be made of the excellent
facilities which the table offers for the prosecution of researches in
Zoology and in the Physiology (including the chemistry) of marine
organisms.

In the report for last year attention was drawn to the sum of 50I.
remaining in the hands of the Committee. Professor Hickson, on
retiring from the.Chairmanship of the Committee, transferred this sum
to the present Chairman. The Committee have therefore required only
501. from the Association this year to complete the sum due for the
upkeep of the table. ;

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 1001.

MARINE LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH. 163

Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. DENDy (Chairman and Secretary), Sir
E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor SyDNEY H. Vinss, Mr. E. S.
GoopricH, and Professor J. P. HILu, appointed to nominate
competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

Since the date of the last report the use of the table has been granted
to Mr. J. S. Dunkerly for one month for the purpose of investigating
Protozoa, especially those parasitic in fish.

Experiments in Inheritance.—Final Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman), Mr. R.
Dovanas Laurie (Secretary), Professor R. C. PUNNETT, and
Dr. H. W. Marerr Tims, appointed to enable Mr. Laurie
to conduct such Experiments. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE experiments were commenced in December 1907 with the object
set forth in the first interim report presented to the Dublin Meeting of
the Association in 1908. They were brought to an end in 1911, and
some of the results summarised in the report to the Portsmouth
Meeting that year. A more detailed account is now given in ‘this
final report.

The data concern in the main two matters: (A) the inheritance of
yellow coat colour in mice, and (B) the inheritance of dense and
dilute colourations in mice.

The following dense colours have come under my notice during
the experiments: yellow, golden-agouti, cinnamon-agouti, black, and
chocolate. On the presence and absence hypothesis,

homozygous golden- -agouti may be represented by zygotic formula yy GG BB Ch Ch.

33 cinnamon-agouti es 5 ‘ yy GG bb Ch Ch.

a black A E pa yy gg BB Ch Ch.

oF chocolate 35 pe oP yy gg bb Ch Ch,
where Y factor for yellow colour (not barred).

G a », barred arrangement of yellow colour found in hairs of
agouti (grey) mice.

B PP ;, black colour.

Ch 5 », chocolate colour.

Yellow appears to be always heterozygous, and zygotic formule representing
various kinds of yellow mice may be arrived at by rep'acing yy of the above series
by Yy.

Each of the above colours may occur in a dense form, in which the

pigment is densely deposited, or in a dilute form; these dense and
M2 |

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

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166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

dilute conditions are allelomorphic, and may be represented by
presence or absence of the factor D.

Further, any of the above conditions may be present potentially,
but remain undeveloped in absence of some colour-activating material
which may be represented by factor C; in the absence of this factor
the animal is an albino.

A. The Inheritance of Yellow Coat Colour in Mice.

In the first place, all my yellow mice appear to be heterozygous in
respect of their yellow coat colour; none which have been fairly tested
breeding true to yellowness, but on the other hand giving offspring
which include, in addition to yellows, a proportion of individuals
whose colour is other than yellow. Yellow is incompletely epistatic
to black and chocolate. I find that, as Durham points out, black
pigment may be present in the hairs of yellows throwing blacks, and
chocolate pigment in the hairs of yellows throwing chocolates.
Moreover, the degree of development of these other pigments in the
hairs varies a good deal during the life of the animal.

The tendency to abnormal fattening of yellow mice pointed out by
Durham was also evident in the mice used by me.

I arrange the matings which concern yellow mice in two tables:
yellow x yellow, and yellowxother colour. The abbreviations in
brackets indicate the immediate parentage of the mice concerned.
Where the heterozygous nature of a yellow mouse is not shown in
the table by its offspring a note is added of some additional mating
showing it to be heterozygous (see tables on pp. 164, 165, and 168,
169).

I. In regard to the matings yellow x yellow given in the table
on pp. 164 and 165 certain points may be noted:

(2) Twenty-six of the mice used were derived from the cross
yellow x yellow, and expectation was that at least one-third of
these would prove to be true-breeding yellows. There are only two,
however (marked with asterisk), which could possibly answer to this
condition, and there is no evidence about them beyond that given in the
table. It will be seen that they produced only two and three young
respectively. Matings with other mice designed to test them
gametically proved sterile. It would evidently be inappropriate to
quote these as examples of mice homozygous in yellow.

(b) The total number of offspring is 72 yellow and 41 other
colour. On the theory that yellow-bearing gametes do not conjugate,
one would expect the ratio 3 : 1, from which the calculated result of
the above matings would be 84°75:28'°25, a very poor approximation
indeed. On the alternative theory that the yellow-bearing gametes do
actually conjugate but that the zygotes so produced perish before
birth, one would expect the ratio 2:1, from which the calculated
result would be 75°3:37'6, a very close approximation to the experi-
mental figures. The latter suggestion, moreover, harmonises with the

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 167

combined results of Cuénot, Castle, and Durham. Adding my own
results to those of the other observers named, we find :—

Yellow. Other pala:

WucnOtge amie huss ey ht oes sad: aoe Ss 263 100
Gastley (1910) y ef as 4) cers a) a py a fe 800 435
Durham(lOl)- tee Be) ele 448 232
LDDUDGIE ence Sy Wee Ole ao poeta Cem Oe area 72 _ 41
Experimental Be ae: eaystaliry Bane Ws fae Serge Fat 1583 808
Calculated: 2s:) teeth. me eee) 1594 Tell

It is of interest to find this anomalous result confirmed from
experiments with an additional independent strain of mice.

(c) The number of young in a litter from yellow x yellow which
survive to an age at which their colour is determinable is small,
averaging only 3°64, as against 4°58 among mice of other colours. It
is possible that this is associated with the hypothetical abortion of
zygotes homozygous in yellow. Cuénot and Castle find a similar
though smaller difference in size of family; but, on the other hand,
Durham does not. (See Appendix A.).

II. The table on pp. 168 and 169 shows a list of matings of yellow
x other colour. One notes:

(a) The 54 matings of yellow x other colour give 131 yellow:
125 other coloured young, expectation being, on the supposition that
all the yellows were heterozygous, 128: 128.

(b) There were 36 yellow mice involved in the matings, of which
11 were known from their parentage to be heterozygous. The
remaining 25 were derived from yellow xX yellow, and one-third at least
of these should have been gametically pure to yellow and have given
only yellow young when mated to mice of any other colour. But all
save one, and this had a couple of youngsters only, threw some other
colour in addition to yellow.

(c) Of the 25 yellow mice ex yellow x yellow 14 are recorded also
in the list of matings of yellow X yellow, so that 11 remain to be added
to the 26 of the other list, making 37 yellow mice of which both
parents were yellow, and of which none, on being tested adequately,
proved to be homozygous, though about a dozen should have been so,
even assuming both the yellow parents to have been in each case
heterozygous.

(d) The number of young in a litter from yellow X other colour
which survived to an age at which their colour was determinable
averages 4°74, much the same as in the case of matings in which both
parents are some colour other than yellow, where the average is 4°58.
There is no reason associated with the theory of abortion of zygotes
Y Y why this should be otherwise. There is, of course, no opportunity
for the formation of such zygotes in-the mating of yellow x other
colour.

168

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

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EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE.

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170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

_ Some of the yellow mice were mated with albinos, as I wished to
discover and eliminate strains carrying albinism. These matings were
thus incidental, but may nevertheless be put on record as follows :—

: Choco- | Silver-
Black, |Blue, 2.e., . 5
Yellow X Albino | Yellow |7.e.,dense} dilute tie BiG foveee Albino Total
| black black chocolate |chocolate

é x — 2 — — — 2 4
ee OL — 1 — — — 1 2
aN qe 1 2 — —- | — 4 7
Ge aX ace 2 — ee er 5 7
De mS, — | 1 — —- | — 1 2
O ex) a i ee 2 1 Fe Fi ore 1 6

3 10 1 — — 14 28
ou x he 2 2 = 2 — — 6
Oo axe 2 4 2 == — — — 6
Grex = — a 2 — — | 2
an exis? 1 1 = 3 —_ — | 5
Bee ae. 3 2 — 2 -—— — | 7
Bex. AO 1 1 1 _ — | 3
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ox Se 4 1 — — — — | 5
oo xe 2 —- |; — 2 — — 4
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er oer & 4 ); — | = 1 — — | 5
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oe = _ a 1 — — | 1
Ps gues ig 5 =p — —- | — } 5
OE AG 2 is | 1 — 1 el 6
Oars == aa 1 2 = eee
OFESS ac | 4 3 — — = Sl i
Oy deh 3 2 — oo — — | 5
OSE) eh 2 1 — — — aa 3
Observed | 45 33 3 19: sey 14, 21, ee

SS |
56 |

Calculated 50:5 50:5

It does not appear necessary to discuss the above matings
individually, but one notes :—

(a) In those litters where albinos are present the proportions of
coloured and albino young agree with expectation. Equality is ex-
pected, the numbers are 14:14.

(b) Among the coloured offspring 45 are yellow and 56 other colour,
expectation being equality since all the yellow parents are known to be
heterozygous either from their parentage or from some other mating.

General Resiulls of the Present Experiments on the Heredily of Yellow
Coat Colour in Mice.

Firstly, to confirm in a different strain of mice the evidence that
yellow mice occur only in the heterozygous condition; and secondly,
to support the view that in the mating yellow x yellow, zygotes of the
formula Y Y are actually formed, but are abortive.

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 171

B. Dense and Dilute Colourations.

Each colour in the epistatic series has its dense and dilute form,
density and dilution forming an allelomorphic pair. Density may be
thought of as due to the presence of a factor D and dilution as due to
the absence of this factor. My investigations concern the dense and
dilute forms of black and chocolate.

I was led to investigate this matter through the appearance,
recorded in my 1908 report, of black, blue, and chocolate young in a
litter from the mating of two blacks, and the fact that a particular
yellow mouse threw blacks when mated with chocolate, and blues
when mated with blue. While working the matter out, Miss Durham’s
account (1908) of similar experiments appeared. The details I now
publish confirm her work, while showing that Cuénot’s suggestion that
chocolate is the dilute form of black is untenable. I am able to add
some further types of crosses to those recorded by Durham, which give
the expected results.

Evidence against Cuénot’s suggestion that chocolate is the dilute
form of black and in favour of the view :—

a. That chocolate carries the factor for dense deposition of pigment,
and that silver-fawn is the condition of chocolate in which this factor
is absent ;

b. Thal black carries the factor for dense deposition of pigment,
and that blue is the condition of black in which this factor is absent.

Black and chocolate are the two lowest terms in the epistatic
colour series.

Chocolate homozygous (DD bb) x blue homozygous (dd BB).
F, black (Dd Bb).

F, 15 black : 4 blue : 3 choc. ; 1 sil.-fawn
1 1 1 0 ex pair blacks of unknown
parentage.
16 5 4 1
44 17 17 8 Durham.
60 22 21 9 observed.
63 21 21 7 calculated 9.3.3.1 ratio.

Black homozygous (DD BB) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, black (Dd Bb).
F, 5 black : 2 blue : 3 choc. : 1 sil.-fawn

67 21 20 5 Durham.
72 23 23 6 observed.
69°75 23°25 23°25 775 calculated 9.3.3. 1 ratio.

The above two types of di-hybrid matings substantiate the view above
stated. Further matings, all in harmony with this view, are:

Black carrying silver-fawn (Dd Bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, 2 black : 1 blue : 0 choc. + 2-sil.-fawn observed.
1:25 1-25 1:25 1:25 calculated 1.1.1.1 ratio

1%2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Black carrying blue (Dd BB) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, 1 black : 4 blue observed.
2-5 2°5 calculated 1.1 ratio.

Black carrying chocolate (DD Bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, 14 black : 10 chocolate observed.
12 12 calculated 1 . 1 ratio.

Black carrying blue (Dd BB) x black carrying silver-fawn (Dd Bb).

F, 2 black : 1 blue observed.
2-25 0:75 calculated 3. 1 ratio.

Black carrying blue (Dd BB) x black carrying chocolate (DD Bb).

F, 4 blacks observed.
4 calculated.

Black x chocolate.

Black homozygous (DD BB) x chocolate homozygous (DD bb).
F, black (DD Bb).
F, 16 black : 7 chocolate

42 17 Durham.
58 24 observed.
61:5 20:5 calculated 3-1 ratio.

Black homozygous (DD BB) x black carrying chocolate (DD Bb).
F, black. Four matings gave 16 black young.

Black carrying chocolate (DD Bb) x chocolate homozygous (DD bb).
F, 4 black : 4 chocolate observed.
4 4 calculated 1 . 1 ratio.

Black x blue.

No matings DD BB x dd BB, but F, from black (DD BB) x black carrying
blue (Dd BB) gave 16 black young as the result of three matings.

F,. None of the F, generation were mated, but the following results of matings
between blacks unconnected with the above are such as would be expected if both
blacks carried blue (Dd BB).

Dd BB Dd BB

33 ¢ x 35 9 gave 5 black : 2 blue.

33g x 3852 4, 8 1

She Kade. 44-7 2

26°16 x 2a 2) 1
16 6
50 13 Durham, F, from black x blue.
66 19 observed.

63-75 21-25 calculated 3. 1 ratio.

Chocolate x silver-fawn.

Chocolate homozygous (DD bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).

F, chocolate (Dd bb).

F, 14 chocolate : 7 silver-fawn.
1 ex pair chocs. of unknown parentage.

17 8 observed.
18-75 6:25 calculated 3.1 ratio.

OO —

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 173

Durham did not carry any mating of the above type into the F, generation.

Chocolate carrying silver-fawn (Dd bb) x silver-fawn (dd bb).
F, 7 chocolate : 10 silver-fawn observed.
8:5 8:5 calculated 1 . 1 ratio,

Blue x_ silver-fawn.

No matings dd BB x dd bb. But, as above recorded, a black carrying blue
(Dd BB) x silver-fawn (dd bb) gave black and blue in F,.
F, from these F, blues (dd Bb):
2 blues : 2 silver-fawns.
4 1 ex pair blues of unknown parentage.

6 3
46 17 Durham.
52 20 observed.
54 18 calculated 3. 1 ratio.

Silver-fawn x silver-fawn.

Silver-fawns should breed true, since they represent the lowest term of the epistatic
colour series associated with absence of factor for dense deposition of pigment.
Zygotic formula dd bb.

Five matings between silver-fawns gave 28 silver-fawn young.

APPENDIX A.
Average Number of Young in Latter.

Durham’s data are included for comparison; each of her averages
is based on at least 75 litters.

Average per litter
Laurie Durham

Yellow x yellow . . . . . . . +. 8:64 (81 litters) 3-90
Yellow x other colour : 4 : é : . 474(54 ,, ) 3-97
Agouti SChACOULINE SAM Aire svi xo) Hotel so) Poaet We. 3-47
Agouti x other colour (not yellow). . . . 3:32
Black x<Gablack. jal ) «57 wruw ss teks 4:83 (23 ,, ) 4-60
Black x other colour (not yellow) . 4:29 (14 ,, ) 3-99
Blue <Vipliews 24) se ae, Pace 4:24(21 ,, )
Blue x other colour (not yellow) . 5-12 (26 ,, )
Chocolate x chocolate . . . . 4:32(25 ,, ) 3:96
Chocolate x other colour (not yellow) . 4-71(34 ,, ) 3-93
Silver-fawn x silver-ffawn . . . . 560(5 ,, )
Silver-fawn x other colour (not yellow) . 4:79 (14 ,, )
Albino x albino a ee 5-18 (17 ,,_ +)
Albino x yollow. . «..-! 4:60(25 ,, )
Albino x colour (not yellow) 4:19 (41 ,, ) 4:27

In the above records, both Miss Durham’s and my own, only
those mice are counted which lived long enough for their colours’ to
be determined.

The strikingly smaller size in my experiments of the average litter
ex yellow x yellow, as compared with the other matings, is commented
on above. A lesser difference was observed by Cuénot also (yellow x
yellow 3°38; yellow x other colour 3°74) and Castle (yellow x yellow
4°71; yellow x other colour 5°57). On the other hand, Durham’s
figures warn one to be cautious as to one’s inferences.

174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF sCIENCE.—1914.

The data from which the above averages are calculated are as
follows :—

Yellow x yellow. See list.

Yellow x other colour. See list.

Black x black gave 7, 5, 3, 6, 7, 9, 4, 2, 8, 4, 2, 5, 4, 4, 4, 3, 2, 6, 5, 7, 7, 3, 4.
Black x blue gave 3.

Black x chocolate gave 2, 2, 4, 2.

Black x silver-fawn gave 5, 6, 6, 8, 4, 6, 2, 5, 5.
Blue x blue gave 7, 4, 4, 7, 2, 4, 3, 6, 3, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6, 5, 4, 3, 8, 2, 2, 5
ae x chocolate gave 5, 7, 5, 2, 7, 5, 6, 5, 4, 4, 7, 8, 7, 4, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, 7, 4, 7,

3, 6,
Mics x black. See black x blue.
Phocalete sx: chocolatey; Steer Sree earthy BENE ee eee

*Snouelsle x silver-fawn gave 5, 3, 1, 7, 4.

Chocolate x blue. See blue x chocolate.

Chocolate x black. See black x chocolate.
Silver-fawn x silver-fawn gave 7, 3, 6, 6, 6.
Silver-fawn x black. See black x silver-fawn.
Silver-fawn x chocolate. See chocolate x silver-fawn.
Albino x albino gave 5, 2, 4, 6, 6, 5, 6, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 6,

Albino x colour other than yellow gave 4, 3) ‘4, ‘1, 7
6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 1, 2, 2, 2, 4, 8, 4, 2, 5, 6, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 2 AL

APPENDIX B.
Albino Mice.

I crossed many of my mice with albinos in the process of testing
their genetic behaviour. There appears to be no need to set out the
results in detail, but the following points may be noted :—

The size of litter in the three types of mating—albino x albino,
albino x yellow, and albinox colour other than yellow—is given in
Appendix A.

The colour composition of the litters from albino x colour con-
formed to the rules now well established for the heredity of albinism
in mice.

Fourteen of the matings albino x colour yielded some albino young;
the total young from these matings numbered 37 albino: 30 coloured,
expectation being equality.

APPENDIX C.
Piebald Mice.

_ A piebald chocolate-and-white mouse appeared in a litter born to a
chocolate mouse bought in kindle from a dealer. I bred from it to the
F, generation in order to assure myself that it acted as a recessive to
self-colour.

References.
BATESON . 1903 . ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ London.
————— . 1909 . *Mendel’s Principles of Heredity’ (coloured illus-

trations of mice).
Baur . . 1907 . ‘Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges.,’ vol. xxv.

EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 175

CastLE . .. 1906 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol. xxiv.
. 1910 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol. xxx.

CufnoT . . . ‘Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen.,’ vols. 1., ., II., VI.

DaRBISHIRE . 1903 . ‘ Biometrika,’ vol. 1.

DurHAM . 1908 . ‘Rept. IV. Evolution Com., Royal Society.’

—_—_—_ . 1911 : ‘Jour. Genetics,’ vol. I.

Haqgepoorn . 1909 (1) . ‘Arch. Entwickelungsmechanik,’ vol. xxvii.

——— . 1909 (2) . ‘Univ. California Pub. Physiol.,’ vol. m1.

LAURIE . 1909 . ‘Rept. Com. Brit. Ass.’ in ‘ Rept. Brit, Ass.,’ Dublin
1908.

— - 1912 . ‘Rept. Com. Brit. Ass.’ in ‘ Rept. Brit. Ass.,’ Plymouth
1911.

Morcan . 1905 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol, xxm.

Witson . 1906 . ‘Science,’ N.S., vol. xxmr.

The Question of Fatigue from the Economic Standpoint.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. H. Muirgeap (Chairman), Miss B. L. Hurcuins (Secre-
tary), Miss A. M. ANpbgERSON, Professor BAINBRIDGE,
Mr. EK. Capsury, Mr. P. SARGANT FLORENCE, Professor
STANLEY Kent, Mr. W. T. Layton, Dr. T. G. Marrnanp,
Miss M. C. Marueson, Dr. C. §. Myers, Mr. J. W. Rams-
BOTTOM, and Dr, J. JENKINS Ross. In addition, help has
been kindly afforded by the following: Miss MABEL ATKIN-
son, Dr. Wm. Brown, Mr. ARTHUR GREENWOOD, and Dr.
Upney YULE.

Tue Committee has met four times, and has made a preliminary
survey of the subject of investigation, and has discussed the matter
at some length.

An extensive Bibliography of Fatigue has been prepared for the
use of the Committee by Miss B. L. Hutchins.

A short report has been drawn up on industrial experiments in
shortening hours, also by Miss Hutchins.

Some notes have been kindly contributed by Dr. William Brown
on the existing state of psychological knowledge in regard to fatigue.

A Memorandum on the provisional aims and methods of the inquiry
has been drawn up by Mr. Ramsbottom, and adopted by the Com-
mittee as a basis of its future work.

As a result of our preliminary survey, we have become aware that
a considerable amount of work on the subject has been done in America
and on the Continent of Europe, and, so far, comparatively little in
this country.

We consider, however, that but little definite information exists,
and detailed scientific investigation is badly needed, especially in
view of the rapid development of the factory industry and the pro-
gressive urbanisation of the working class in this country.

_ We propose, if reappointed, to adopt the following method of
investigation :—

Mr. Ramsbottom has defined the object of inquiry as being ‘ to

176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

ascertain the effect on physique, accident occurrence, production and
general social well-being of present conditions relating to fatigue
occurrence in industrial work, and to discuss possible improvements
therein, and the best methods of obtaining them.’ We concur with
this definition.

We hope that Dr. Maitland, being a member of our Committee,
will prepare a short résumé of existing knowledge on the effects of
muscular and mental fatigue respectively. We shall also endeavour
to ascertain what are the main subjective and objective determinants
of fatigue; e.g., what is the relative importance of muscular work,
mental strain, monotony, atmospheric wet-bulb temperature (kata-
thermometric condition), noise, light, etc.; and to discover some
reliable physiological quantitative index of fatigue, and the chief
physiological effects of over-fatigue.

We shall consider the questions what increase, if any, has occurred
in general morbidity in recent years, and to what extent this can be
ascribed to industrial fatigue ; and what difference can be traced between
the morbidity cases of workers in various age groups from fifteen
upwards engaged in occupations involving long hours of work or
specially fatiguing conditions, and those for all workers or workers in
fairly easy occupations.

We shall also consider the incidence of industrial accidents in
relation to hours of work; and the variation in the output of work
per hour during the day, and the output per day with various lengths
of working-day.

We propose to give special attention to the speeding-up of
machinery, and to inquire how far this has been accompanied by a
reduction of hours.

We shall also consider the probable social reactions of over-
fatigue, and what general remedies, if any, may seem most promising
and hopeful.

The Committee has made a preliminary division of the work, as
so sketched, among the following sub-committees :—

Physiological and Psychological. Industrial. Statistical.
Dr. Maitland (Convener). Miss Anderson. Mr. Layton (Convener).
Prof. Muirhead. Mr. Cadbury. Miss Hutchins.
Dr. Myers. Mr. Florence (Convener). Mr. Ramsbottom.
Dr. Bainbridge. Miss Hutchins. Dr. Yule.
Dr. Legge. Miss Matheson.

Mr. Ramsbottom.

And we have appointed Mr. Ramsbottom as hon. organising secretary.
For purposes of the foregoing inquiries we think it will be essential
to obtain the services of expert and paid assistants.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, with the addition of the
words ‘ social and ’ before ‘ economic,’ in their terms of reference, and
to be allotted a grant.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. Wit

Gaseous Hxplosions.—Seventh Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. DuGALD CLERK (Chairman), Professor DALBY
(Secretary), and Professors W. A. Bonz, F. W. BURSTALL,
H. L. CALLenpaR, E. G. Coker, H. B. Dixon, Drs. R. T.
GLAZEBROOK and J. A, Harker, Colonel H. C. L. HoLpEn,
Professors B. Hopkinson and J, EK, Preraven, Captain H.
RiALL SANKEY, Professors A. SMITHELLS and W. WATSON,
Mr. D. L. CHapman and Mr. H. E. WIMPERIS.

Tue decease of the Chairman, Sir William Preece, was reported to the
Committee in December last, when a letter of condolence was sent to
the family.

Sir William Preece had associated himself intimately with the
investigations carried out by the Committee, and contributed an interest-
ing Note on the Kinetic Theory of Gases. As Chairman he did much
to help forward the important work on which the Committee is
engaged both by his valuable suggestions and by his tactfulness and
resource. His loss is not only deeply deplored, but felt to be a
personal one by every member of the Committee.

The Vice-Chairman, Dr. DucaupD CLERK, was unanimously elected
Chairman.

The Committee met three times during the session 1913-14 at the
City and Guilds (Engineering) College, Exhibition Road, London, S.W.
The following Notes were presented and discussed :—

Note 82 by Professor Datpy on Suction Temperatures directly
measured and deductions therefrom, together with a summary of a
series of seventeen experiments made at the City and Guilds (Engineer-
ing) College on a Crossley gas-engine with a cylinder seven inches in
diameter, stroke fourteen inches, and with a compression ratio at 4’8.

Note 33 by Mr. H. E. Wimpsris on Thermal Efficiency.

Note 34 by Professor EK. G. Coker and Mr. W. A. ScosLE on
Temperature Distribution in the Cylinder of a Gas-engine.

Note 35 by Professor W. Warson on the Spectroscopic Study of
the Combustion of Air-petrol Mixtures.

The object of Note 32 was to show how the suction temperature
varied with the speed, with the jacket temperature, and with the
mixture. The records given in the Note relate to trials Nos. 72 to 90.
The data were obtained by a research student of the City and Guilds
(Engineering) College, Mr. Limbourne, working under the supervision
of Professor Dalby. A table included in the Note shows the variation
in the suction temperatures, and a set of curves, also included, gives
the temperatures of the working mixture; these indicate how the direct
knowledge of the suction temperature can be applied to determine the
temperatures at other parts of the cycle.

In Note 33 Mr. Wimperis discusses the thermal efficiency of an
‘engine using as the working agent a standard gas referred to in the first

1914. N

178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

report of the Committee, and using in his calculations the values of
the internal energy defined by the curve in fig. 6 of that report.

In Note 84 Professor Coker describes the method of measuring
the cyclical temperature in a gas-engine cylinder used by him at the
Technical College, Finsbury, and gives the results of some recent
experiments. Curves are included showing the temperature of the
explosive charge, together with tables of the actual temperatures at
various points in the cycle. A full description of the thermo-couple
used in these experiments is given in the Note.

In connexion with Note 35 Professor Watson showed a series of
photographs of the spectrum of the light given by the burning charge
in the cylinder of a petrol engine. The results show that the gases
in the cylinder continue to emit light giving a line spectrum for a
considerable time after the chemical changes are generally assumed to
have been completed.

Before proceeding to consider the work carried out during the
current session it has been thought advisable to give a brief summary
of the previous reports of the Committee. a.

Summary of Previous Reports.

The first report is- devoted mainly to the subject of the specific
heats of gases at high temperatures. The constant-pressure experi-
ments of Wiedemann, Regnault, Holborn, and Henning are analysed
and discussed, and a curve is given showing the energy of CO,, steam,
and air in terms of the temperature Centigrade. The experiments of
Dr. Dugald Clerk are described, and the results obtained compared
with the constant-pressure experiments mentioned above. ‘The closed
vessel experiments of Mallard, Le Chatelier, and Langen are analysed
and the results plotted and discussed.

The report ends with the discussion of thermal equilibrium, chemical
equilibrium, the motion of a gas, and the measurement of temperature.
A curve is given showing the internal energy of a gas-engine mixture
in terms of the temperature. _

There is an appendix by Professor Callendar on ‘ The Deviation of
Actual Gases from the Ideal State,’ and on ‘ Experimental Errors in
the Determination of their Specific Heats.’ .

The second report is mainly devoted to the subject of the specific
heat of gases at high ‘temperatures... Regnault’s results at low tem-
peratures “are discussed-in the light of Mr. Swann’s experiments,
which were conimunicated to. the Committee by Professor Callendar.
The Committee definitely adopted Mr, Swann’s values for air and for
CO, as given below... -

Volumetric heat of air at 100° C. is 19-8 lbs. per cubic foot,

ce = CO, at 20° C. is 27-4 Ibs. per cubic foot, and
at 100° C. is 30-7 lbs. per cubic foot.

The results of the experiments made by Dr. Dugald Clerk with the
object of determining the volumetric heat of air at high temperature
are given in the report, together with a description. of Professor

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 179

Hopkinson’s experiments on the compression of air in a gas-engine
cylinder.

Dr. Watson’s researches on the efficiency of a petrol motor are
included in the report. Dr. Watson made a simultaneous measure-
ment of the quantities of air and petrol taken into the engine and of
the chemical composition of the exhaust gas. The point brought out
was that the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the exhaust gas was greater
than the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the petrol used. Additional
evidence of this discrepancy is furnished by some experiments of
Professor Hopkinson, and the experiments of Hopkinson and Watson
are in agreement.

The report concludes with an account of the experiments on radia-
tion carried out by Professor Hopkinson.

There are two appendices: one relating to Regnault’s corrections in
connection with the determination of the specific heat of air, and the
other relating to Deville’s experiments on the dissociation of gases by
Dr. Harker.

The third report is devoted mainly to the consideration of the
subject of radiation from gases. A brief general history of the subject
is given, together with a record of the experiments of Professor
Hopkinson and of Professor Callendar. The report discusses the direct
effect of radiation on the efficiency of internal-combustion motors, the
amount of radiation from flames, and the molecular theory of radiation
from gases as well as the question of the transparency of flames to
their own radiation. There is an appendix on the radiation of flames
by Professor Callendar, giving some account of experiments made with
a Méker burner; a second appendix on the radiation in a gaseous
explosion by Professor Hopkinson; and a third appendix which
contains abstracts from various papers relating to the application of
heat radiation from luminous flames to Siemens’ Regenerating
Furnaces.

The fourth report merely notes the number of meetings held during
the year, and states that, partly owing to the breakdown of apparatus
and partly to the demands made upon the time of the various investi-
gators, only two notes were read; consequently it was decided that
the work then on hand should be included in the report for the
following year.

The fifth report continues the discussion of the effect of radiation,
and is devoted mainly to the consideration of the factors which deter-
mine the heat flow from the gas to the walls of the cylinder. The
remarkable effect of turbulence on the rate of combustion is first
mentioned in this report. Particulars of Dr. Dugald Clerk’s experi-
ments are given, and these experiments definitely establish the fact
that but for turbulence the speed at which modern internal-combustion
engines are run would be impossible. Professor Hopkinson’s experi-
ments, in which a fan was placed inside a closed vessel and the rates
of combustion observed with the fan at rest and in motion, are recorded
in the report, and confirm Dr. Clerk’s results.

In the sixth report the resignation of Dr. Dugald Clerk and
Professor Hopkinson from the Joint Secretaryship of the Committee is

N 2

180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

reported. Dr, Clerk consented, however, to act as Vice-Chairman,
and Professor Dalby was appointed Secretary.

The Committee allocated the whole of the grant to the Secretary
for the purpose of providing him with a permanent research assistant
to carry on the work. It was stated that Professor Dalby and Dr.
Clerk were engaged on the design of an experimental plant to be
placed in the new laboratory of the City and Guilds (Engineering)
College.

Six notes, relating chiefly to heat flow, temperature, and leakage,
are briefly summarised.

Object of Present Report.

The following report is devoted partly to the special consideration
of temperature measurements and subjects arising therefrom, and partly
to the illustration of the use which can be made of the data obtained by
the Committee.

Methods of Measuring Temperature of the Charge in a Gas-engine
Cylinder under working conditions.

One of the problems requiring solution was the direct measurement
of the temperature of the working agent in the cylinder while the
engine was running under ordinary working conditions. The difficulty
of making this measurement arises from the fact that during the

explosion of the charge in the engine cylinder the temperature is
sometimes higher than that of the melting-point of platinum or of the
couples which can be put in the cylinder to make the measurement.
In Note 32 is described a method devised by Professors Callendar
and Dalby,’ which for the first time enabled direct observation of the

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., A., vol. 80, 1907.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 181

suction temperature to be made while the engine was working not
only under normal conditions but under special conditions, during
which the richest possible mixture was used and the temperature
reached at explosion was considerably higher than that occurring in
practice. The thermometer itself consisted of a piece of platinum
wire about 0°7 inch long and ,1,, of an inch in diameter, arranged
with compensating leads. It is placed in a thermometer-valve, which
is inserted through the spindle of the admission-valve in the manner
shown in fig. 1, in which P is the platinum thermometer, and T is
the head of the thermometer-valve, which is inserted centrally in the

A G

\
B N
Lae | Sos
(ft ¢

\ E
Tp LAY SHAFT OF

GAS ENGINE.

Fic. 2.

admission-valve A. The spring S serves to close the admission-
valve, and the spring U serves to close the thermometer-valve. The
main casting, C, carrying these valves is bolted to the engine in the
ordinary way. A separate cam is mounted on the half-time shaft to
operate the central thermometer-valve, and the complete arrangement
is shown in fig. 2, where E is the cam; / and L are levers keyed to the
supplementary shaft Q, which is carried on the casting F'; the spring
S maintains contact between the end of the lever / and the cam. The
end of the thermometer with the leads projecting is shown at B.
The lever L is in contact with the nut N on the thermometer-valve.
The cam is so designed that during the explosion period the valve

182 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

is closed, and the thermometer therefore screened from the action
of the gas. In this way the thermometer is withdrawn just before
the end of compression, so that at this critical period of the cycle
there is nothing in the shape of a protuberance to cause preignition.
When the platinum thermometer is exposed in the cylinder and
connected to the Wheatstone bridge and galvanometer on which the
indications are received, the circuit is made by a contact-maker on the
crank-shaft when the crank passes through an assigned crank-angle, and
is broken by the contact-maker when the crank passes through a second
assigned crank-angle a little greater than the first, so that the electrical

ll fe
MY

INSULATION®

i=eT

OF AAMFPING
Sczew Ste tie 4.

Fig. 3.

measuring device is in operation during 5°, 10°, or 15° as the case
may be.

This contact-maker is a very important part of the electrical equip-
ment used in connexion with these temperature measurements, as it
enables a definite make and a definite break to be made in the electrical
circuit, and, in addition, enables the time between the make and break
to be adjusted with accuracy.

The contact-maker (fig. 3). consists of a brass bush B, keyed to a
lay shaft of the engine, and carrying two fibre washers or cains W, and
W:, which can be clamped in any relative angular position against the
flange of the bush by the nut N. A radial step, as w, is made in
each washer, and the surface gradually rises from the bottom of the
step to the normal circular surface of the washer. The reflexed ends

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 183

of the stiff springs S, and S, rest on the fibre cams. A projection 7,
carrying a platinum-pointed screw p is riveted to one of the springs,
and the-screw p is adjusted so that its point is just clear of the platinum
rivet in the other spring when both springs are riding on the circular
surfaces of their respective cams. Contact is made when the rotation
of the lay shaft in the direction of the arrow brings the radial step
w, of the cam W, under the spring S., thereby allowing it to fall down
the step, thus bringing p and r together. Contact is broken when the
radial step w. of the cam W; reaches the spring S:, thereby allowing
the second spring to fall down the step w.. The epoch and duration
of contact are readily adjusted by adjusting the angular positions of
the cams relatively to the bush and also with regard to one another.
The distances between the springs and the platinum contacts and the
steps w are exaggerated in the diagram in order to make the principle
of the apparatus clear. The percussion form of contact with platinum
points is found to give definite and certain results. The contacts keep

fi 4) t

“CLAMPING Screw
FIKREO PLATE
Fia. 4.

clean, and no trouble of any kind is experienced with them. The general
arrangement of the electrical connections are shown in fig. 4. In this
figure PS, QS are the equal ratio arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
The galvanometer G is connected to the point § and to the sliding
contact on the bridge-wire BW. The thermometer and its leads P
are connected on one side of the bridge-wire, and the compensator C
and the balancing resistance R on the other. The battery circuit
includes a mercury reversing key K, an adjustable resistance r, and
a storage cell V; and the battery is connected to the bridge at the
points P and Q, and to the brushes of the periodic contact-maker at E.
The brushes E are carried by an insulated arm A bolted to a divided
dise O riding loosely on the lay shaft of the engine, and capable of
being clamped in any position by the screw L. The index I shows
the crank-angle corresponding to the middle point of the contact when
the insulated copper strip D carried in thé fibre bush F passes under
the brushes,

184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

The temperature is measured, therefore, during a particular crank-
angle determined by the setting of the contact-maker. This can
be set, while the engine is running, to determine the make and
break at any assigned crank-angle in the revolution. It was usually
set so that the interval between the make and break was 5° or 109.
In this manner the mean temperature over a small crank-angle can
be measured at any point in the cycle, except only during the period
of the explosions when the thermometer is withdrawn from the cylinder.
But although there is this possibility with the method it is desirable
to measure the temperature at a point on the cycle where the rate
of change of temperature is at a minimum. ‘This point occurs just
after the closing of the suction-valve. The great advantage of making
the measurement at this point is that the thermometer is exposed to
the incoming charge during the whole of the suction-stroke and
therefore the thermometer-valve tends to assume the temperature of
the charge; consequently the temperature which the small wire is set
to measure does not differ greatly from the temperature of the metal
in which it is mounted. This condition tends to minimise the errors
of measurement. At any other point in the cycle the rate of change
of temperature is greater; and the error of the measurements, there-
fore, is likely to be greater owing to the lag of the thermometer.
On the expansion-stroke, for example, the temperature may vary as
much as 150° during the movement of the piston through ;4, of the
stroke. Just after the closing of the suction-valve the variation of
temperature during the movement of the piston through ;4, of the
stroke is only about 20°.

Having found the temperature at one point in the cycle, the tem-
perature at any other point can be calculated by using the charge itself
as the thermometric agent. The characteristic equation of the charge is

oa constant. If, therefore, from the indicator diagram taken at

the time the temperature was measured, the corresponding pressure
and volume are measured, then the temperature at any other point of
the cycle can be calculated by the aid of this constant and the pressure
and volume scaled from the indicator diagram, allowance being made
for chemical contraction of the charge after explosion. It is necessary
to have accurate indicator diagrams from which to measure the
pressure and volume for this purpose, and this has led to the develop-
ment of an optical indicator.

Ezample of the Application of the Method to an Engine Trial
(72) at the City and Guilds (Engineering) College.

The general procedure in making temperature measurements by
this method, and with an improved optical indicator devised by Pro-
fessor Dalby and Dr. Watson, may be illustrated by data obtained
during a trial made at the City and Guilds (Engineering) College by
Professor Dalby last year, a full report of which will be found in
Note 32 communicated to the Committee.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 185

Indicator Diagrams.

In each trial two indicator diagrams were taken—namely, a com-
plete diagram showing the pressure and volume during the. whole
cycle, and a diagram taken with a thin dise stopped down so as to
give on a large scale the portion of the diagram during the pumping-
stroke. The diagrams are in general calibrated in situ.

°
°
+
°
N
-
°
=
3
3
° 3 ss
oa g e
¢ ta
matin
° oO
a 3

+ 249-75 lbs O”

Fra, 5.

+ 199:75

+ 149-75

+t 99-75

+ 49°75

Ats

Fia. 6.

In carrying out a series of experiments, however, it was found that
the scale was so constant that it was unnecessary to calibrate each
diagram separately. The scale was therefore made for the two discs
used, and was checked from time to-time. A pair of typical diagrams

186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

taken during trial No. 72, together with the scales, are shown in
figs. 5, 6, 7, 8. The following data relate to trial No. 72:—

Mixture 6'88 air to 1 gas by volume.

Jacket temperature 29°5.

Temperature measured at crank-angle 200°; 77° C.

Pressure measured from the diagram at 200° crank-angle; 147
per square inch.

Volume measured at this point, 0°38872 cubic feet.

peter ee NB (NEE 10) |
10
aad = Ath 2073 eae
" 10
zi A+19 75
10
ot ee ALL 9: 75)
Z A + 4-75
475 aad

Fira. 8.

Speed 106 revolutions per minute.
The gas constant for the charge is therefore = 0'01616.

This constant may now be used to calculate the temperature at any
point along the compression-curve, since at a point where the pressure
is P and the volume V, the temperature is:
eee
01616"

187

_ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

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188 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Fig. 9 shows temperature-curves for the compression stroke calcu-
lated in this way, both for trials 72 and 73. Trial 73 was run at about
200 r.p.m.

The constant, however, cannot be applied during the whole eycle,
because, although the weight of the charge remains the same, assum-
ing that there is no leak, yet the volume corresponding to this weight
is slightly different after the explosion has taken place owing to the
contraction due to the chemical rearrangement of the constituents.
The chemical contraction is calculated from the analyses of the gases.
In the gas used in the experiments referred to the contraction
amounted to 3°14 per cent. The effect of this is to change the gas
constant for all points along the expansion-curve from 0°01616 to
0°01565. moot

The curve, fig. 10, shows the temperatures calculated along the
expansion-curves for trials 72 and 73. Ly:

When applying this method of taking the temperatures the governor
should be put out of action, so that there shall be no change in the
rate of the supply of gas which will produce a disturbance of the
temperature in the cycle. Any disturbance produced in a particular
cycle causes a temperature wave through a long series of succeeding
cycles. In practice the gas-engine can be run without any difficulty
without the governor if the engine is coupled to a generator, because
the generator automatically settles down to the speed corresponding
to the power applied to it, and by regulating the resistance of the
armature or the fields, or both, the desired speed can be maintained
for long periods. A special switch-board and a resistance-board have
been designed for the engine at the City and Guilds (Engineering)
College for the purpose of controlling the generator.

Method of Measuring the Temperature of the Charge by means of a
Thermo-couple.

The second method of measuring the temperature of the charge
in the cylinder is by means of a couple. This method has been
developed by Dr. Coker and Mr. Scoble at the Technical College, Fins-
bury. It was found that alloys of platinum with rhodium and iridium
respectively were able to withstand the temperature of explosion
near the walls of the cylinder for some hours or even days when
made into thermo-couples ;5355 to z5859 1 an inch thick, provided

The general relation between electromotive force and temperature
found for one of the couples used is

E (microvolts)= —174 + 7.60757 — 0.001673T?.

The general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in fig. 11.
The battery B and resistances R, and R, are arranged in circuit
so that the fall of potential between the extreme points of a bridge-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 189

0:6

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1200

190 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

wire, BW, can be adjusted to 1 millivolt. This is tested by the
electromotive force of a cadmium cell, C, which can be opposed to the
battery electromotive force by means of the upper key, K,, an allowance
for the known temperature variation of the electromotive force of the
standard cell used being made by an adjustable contact-maker, D.
The thermo-electric couple, H, has one lead connected to the lower
key, K2, and the other set to a set of resistances, S, in the main circuit,
each of which gives a difference of potential of 1 millivolt when the

Lo Contact-Haker

Fie. 11.—Thermo-Electric Bridge.

adjustments are correct. During an observation, therefore, the battery
electromotive force opposes that of the couple and the readings of
the bridge-wire and step resistance taken together measure the electro-
motive force of the couple when the galvanometer, G, shows a
balance. The scale of the bridge-wire is graduated to read to 10 micro-
volts, and single microvolts may be read by estimation. The majority
of the observations were taken when using a D’Arsonyal galvanometer,
giving, on a scale distant 110 centimetres, a deflection of 560 milli-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 191

eee) i

eect Sausuaeae
BES
oa cE

AIR INLET TEMP. 21°C.
VOLUME

JACKET TEMP. 30°C.

SUCTION TEMP. & MIXTURE
BY

i
f

NT LEAF)

AGE meh
MARI I
mm

y |
| | hao
B
a

Rez wea
MIXTURE AIR TO GAS

Z|
pee Pty ee
Mile Yok ob bf ok]
eee

a a
re) ® ae re)
"Os BUNLVYAdWaa

Fie. 12.

192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

metres for 1 microvolt. The contact-maker used with this apparatus
is one devised by Professors Callendar and Dalby, which has already
been described and illustrated in fig. 3.

Suction Temperature.

Direct measurements of the suction temperature were made at the
City and Guilds (Engineering) College during the session 1912-13 on
a Crossley gas-engine with a cylinder 7 inches in diameter, stroke
14 inches, and with a compression ratio of 4°8. The object of the
experiment was to show how the suction temperature varied with the
speed, with the jacket temperature, and with the mixture.

The apparatus with which the measurement was made has been
already described (see pages 180, 181, 182, and 183). The results of the
experiments are shown by the curves fig. 12. It is proposed to repeat
these experiments on engines of more modern type and with higher
compression ratios as soon as the development of the new laboratories
at the College render it possible to do so.

The Cyclical Variation of the Temperature of the Charge in a
Gas-engine Cylinder,

An example has already been given of the method of determining
the cyclical variation of the temperature of the charge in a par-
ticular experiment, deducing it from the temperature measured at a
point on the compression curve in combination with accurate indicator
diagrams. The experiment was made at the City and Guilds (Engineer-
ing) College on the gas-engine already referred to. The engine
is not of recent construction and therefore the compression ratio, viz.
4°8, is low compared with the ratios of gas-engines of more modern
construction. Dr. Coker and Mr. Scoble have measured the cyclical
variation of temperature on a more modern engine constructed by
the National Gas-Engine Company in 1907. This engine has a
cylinder 7 inches in diameter and a stroke of 15 inches. The maxi-
mum volume occupied by the charge is 5'8 times the minimum volume.
The method adopted was to measure directly by means of a platinum
couple the temperature at various points along the compression-curve
and along part of the expansion-curve, but the highest temperature
had still to be measured by using the charge itself as a gas-thermometer.

A value of = is selected from a point on the expansion-stroke, and

the constant so found is used to calculate the higher temperatures. In
this method it is unnecessary to make any calculation regarding the
chemical contraction before and after explosion because the temperature
is measured after the explosion, but the rate of change of temperature at
the point where the temperature is measured is very great, and there-
fore, in comparing the two methods, it is necessary to choose between
a temperature measured when the rate of change is great with a
corresponding lag and no correction for chemical contraction, as against
a method of measuring the temperature when the rate of change is a
minimum, viz. just after the closing of the suction-valve, and allowing

193

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

AOVHYOILNAO

a ee

BARE
eRe

360

180

360

COMPRESSION EXPANSION EXHAUST

SUCTION

Fig, 13.

1914.

194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

for chemical contraction. With suitable precautions both methods can
be made to give consistent results.

The curve in fig. 13 shows the temperature cycle in a gas-engine
cylinder determined by Dr. Coker and Mr. Scoble when the ratio of
air to gas was 735 to 1. The jacket-temperature was 35°6° C., and
the highest temperature calculated was 1836° C.

TEMPERATURE CYCLE OF GAS CHARGE.—CONDITIONS.

Curve Number I.H.P. Bens cee “ Tey dene
1. 10-24 7:35/1 35:6
2. 9-96 7:08/1 37-2
3. 10-11 7-13/1 81-4
4. 10:36 6-71/1 40-6
5. 10:36 5-66/1 52°8
6. 9-74 6-64/1 43-7

Application of the Work of the Committee to Practical Problems.

The application of the work of the Committee to practical problems
can be illustrated in connection with the calculation of the heat ex-
changed between the working agent and the walls of a gas-engine
cylinder.

First Law of Thermodynanucs and the quantities necessary to apply
it to determine heat lost or gained by the working charge during a
change of state.

Let A (fig. 14) be a point on the pressure volume diagram repre-
senting the state of a working agent with regard to its pressure and
volume. Let the state change along the path A, B, so that B repre-
sents the state after the change. Then

The heat received by the’ The work’
: t The change
ee ea ee ef Maes 08) Sd anit ae Paes |=
a silos ei be ag oe of ~ | charge J nal energy (+) ‘he agent (1)
uring the change o per pound on its en-
state from A to B=Q vironment

That is, reckoning in thermal units,

Q=M(Hs—Ey) +4. wt! soc em

In which Q is measured in pound calories.
M is the mass of the charge in pounds.
Ez is the internal energy of the charge in its final state.
Ea is the internal energy of the charge in its initial state.
Z is the work done by the agent on its environment measured in foot-
pounds.
J = 1,400.

Earlier it was assumed that the specific heat of the gas used in the
gas-engine cylinder was constant, and that the change of internal energy
was determined by the change of temperature only. With this as-
sumption the first term on the right-hand side of the equation was

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 195

reckoned by merely multiplying the specific heat into the change of
temperature corresponding to the change of state from A to B, the
mass of the charge M being calculated from the general relation,
PV
M=7 ees a exe 48)
corresponding values of P, V, and T being taken from any point
on the path where they could be determined. It is known, however,

that the specific heat is variable, and the Committee began their work
by reviewing all the available experimental data in connexion with the
subject. Several members of the Committee were themselves carry-
ing out researches in relation to this problem at the same time.

Data found to enable this Determination to be made.

The aim of the Committee was to ascertain the true value of the
specific heat at constant volume, Ky, or, to put it in another way, to
ascertain the relation between the internal energy of the gas and its
temperature. In dealing with gas-engine problems it is more
convenient to combine equations (1) and (2) into a single expression in
which the specific heat is given not in terms of the unit of mass, but
in terms of the unit of volume at standard pressure and temperature.
Substituting in equation (3) for the standard pressure, 1 atmosphere,
for the standard temperature, 273° C. absolute, and for the gas con-
stant, c=96, it will be found that the weight of a cubic foot of the
working agent at standard temperature and pressure is ‘081 lb., and
therefore in terms of foot-pounds, and still assuming that the specific
heat at constant volume is constant, equation (2) becomes,

JQ = 081 JK, (change of temperature) + Z.
02

196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

The quantity 0°081 JK, represents the change of internal energy
in foot-pounds per degree change of temperature per cubic foot as
measured at standard temperature and pressure. When K, is variable
and is a known function of T, say #(T), the term becomes

T,
0-081 J @ (T) aT.
1

Values of this expression in which the lower limit T, is 0 degrees
Centigrade can be read off the curve given in fig. 10, which is taken
from the first Report.

HOLBORN & HENNING.
CLERK CE es

LANGEN! Po eg
MALLARD & LE CHATEUER__._ 9

ENERGY, FOOT-LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT

TEMPERATURE 7 CENTIGRADE
Fig. 15.

To use this curve to find the internal energy corresponding to a
given state-point it is necessary to measure the pressure P and
volume V from a PV diagram, and also to determine the absolute
temperature T. The corresponding volume at standard temperature
and pressure is then calculated from the equation,

peer A
ea P,

This calculated value of V, when multiplied by the internal energy
as given by the curve for the temperature T gives the internal
energy of the gas corresponding to the given state-point.

Symbolically let

E, = internal energy corresponding to the position of a state-point A.

Va, = the corresponding volume measured at A reduced to standard temperature
and pressure, and

Y; = the ordinate of the curve measured at the temperature corresponding to
the temperature of the state-point, then

Ea = Va, Yz

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 197

The position of the points A and B on the PV diagram gives no
indication of the temperature at A or B. If the temperature at one
of the points, however, is known, then the temperature at the second
point can be calculated from the relation

Se ee a ee te)

This relation expresses the characteristic equation for gases, and is
quite independent of the specific heat of the gases concerned. It
applies to all positions of the state-point in the PV diagram provided
that the following two conditions are satisfied :—

Condition 1. That there is no change in density of the gas such as may be
produced by some change in its chemical constitution. ’
’ x 2. That the weight of the working agent during the change of state
from A to B is constant.

It is fundamentally important, therefore, to be able to measure
by direct observation the temperature corresponding to at least one
position of the state-point in the diagram, because by means of this
temperature and the relation expressed in equation (4) the temperature
corresponding to any other position of the state-point in the diagram
can be calculated, providing always that the conditions 1 and 2 are not
violated during the change of state. If the first condition is violated
there is a small change of volume caused by chemical action as the
state-point moves from A to B, and in order to calculate the magnitude
of this change it is necessary to have a chemical analysis of the
gas before and after chemical action. When these analyses are known
a correction can be made and equation (4) can still be applied to calcu-
late the temperature. This kind of action has to be reckoned with,
for example, if the state-point A is on the compression-curve of a gas-
engine and the state-point B is on the expansion-curve.

The earlier part of this report shows that the Committee have given
a good deal of consideration to the subject of the direct measurement
of temperature, and that individual members have worked at the
problem successfully. Examples have been given earlier in the report
of methods which have been applied and are being used in the
researches which are now being carried out. This example shows how
the equation (4) is used to calculate the temperature for different
positions of the state-point B from observations of a single tempera-
ture. The single temperature which it is most useful to know is the
suction-temperature, and this may be defined as the temperature of the
charge in the cylinder just after the admission valve is closed. There
is then a definite weight of charge in the cylinder at a definite
pressure and volume, and at a definite temperature. Allowing for
the chemical contraction, equation (4) can be applied along the expan-
sion-curve.

The Committee have examined into the question of leak of charge,
and have come to the conclusion that in most cases in a modern
engine it is a negligible amount when proper precautions are taken.

198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

These considerations show how important the suction temperature is
in combination with the indicator diagram, as from this temperature
and the pressure and volume given by the diagram the state of the
working agent all through the cycle can be determined, at least
approximately.

The values of the suction temperature for a particular engine are
exhibited in fig. 12 above, and a diagram of the kind would be useful
in connexion with any internal-combustion motor.

To resume, it can now be assumed that it is possible to fix a
temperature for one particular position of the state-point A, and then
the temperature at the end of the change of state B, if not observed,
can be calculated. With a knowledge of those temperatures the
internal energy of the working agent can be read off from the curve
(fig. 15), and then the first term on the right side of the equation, viz.

Hs — Ea = change of internal energy

is determined.

The value of the second term on the right side of equation (1) is
merely the value of the shaded area under the path AB expressed in
foot-pounds. Consequently, from a pressure-volume diagram giving the
initial and final conditions of the working agent and the path of the
state-point in between, together with the temperature corresponding to
one position of the state-point, the right side of the equation can be
determined and the heat gained or lost by the working agent during
the change can therefore be computed. If there is no gain or loss
of heat the work done is done at the expense of the internal energy
of the working agent itself. One of the main objects of the Committee
has been to extend our knowledge of the physical constants of the
gases by the careful examination of methods, apparatus, and results of
various investigators, including members of the Committee, and change
of state of the working charge in a gas-engine can now be followed
with a degree of accuracy which hitherto has been impossible.

A diagram from an actual gas-engine shows the PV changes during
the whole of the four-stroke cycle, but the method explained above
can only be applied to determine the heat exchanges during that part
of the cycle when the weight of charge enclosed in the cylinder is
constant—t.e. during the period between the closing of the suction-
valve and the opening of the exhaust-valve. There is no difficulty
in applying the method practically to a change of state along the com-
pression-curve because the conditions 1 and 2 above are fulfilled.
There is no chemical change and the weight of charge is constant.
Applying the method to the analysis of the expansion-curve, however,
there is difficulty. The left side of equation (1), Q, gives the heat
gained or lost by the gas during a change of state. Q includes the heat
gained by combustion as well as the heat gained or lost from outside, so
that it must be written

Q=04C

where O represents the heat gained or lost to the outside, and C repre-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 199

sents the heat produced by combustion during the change. The diff-
culty is to separate these two during a change of state along the.
expansion-line. It is probable that combustion is not quite com-
plete at the point of maximum pressure; in fact some combustion may
be going on right up to the point at which the exhaust-valve opens.
If, therefore, two points are taken on the expansion-curve and this
method of analysis is applied, neglecting O, the heat loss determined
will obviously be too great.

An analysis of the diagram by this method will be found in Dr.
Clerk’s Gustave Canet lecture, and need not, therefore, be further
pursued. 5

Attention may be specially drawn to the curves in fig. 12, which
show the results of trials made for the purpose of ascertaining the
relationship between the suction temperature and the strength of the
mixture used and on the speed. When the mixture is 9 parts of air and
1 part of gas by volume the suction-temperature is about 70° C. at
a speed of 100 revs. per minute. At 200 revs. per minute the suction
temperature is increased to 783° C. At the constant speed of 200 revs.
per minute the temperature gradually increases as the mixture becomes
richer; with a 10 to 1 mixture the temperature is 75° C., and this
increases to 964° C. with a 6 to 1 mixture. Af the lower speed the
change in temperature is almost as great for a corresponding change
in the mixture, namely from 673° C. to 82° C. With a modern engine
using a higher compression it is probable that the temperatures would
be generally higher. Fig. 13 shows the cyclical variation of tempera-
ture aS determined by Dr. Coker on a more modern engine, and the
suction temperatures given by him are of the order of 200° C. Dr.
Coker explains this high suction temperature as being partly due to the
retention of hot gas and partly due to the long exhaust-pipe which was
used.

Dalby and Callendar’s experiments have shown that when using
rich mixtures the maximum temperature in the cylinder is probably
about 2000° C., and these results have been confirmed by Coker and
Scoble. For the mixtures used in ordinary working conditions the
experiments of Dalby, Callendar, Coker, and Scoble show that the
temperature is about 18009 C. It is hoped to continue the experiments
on temperature measurements when engines of more modern construc-
tion have been installed in the new engine laboratory of the City and
Guilds (Engineering) College.

The concentration of research on the accurate measurement of
temperature is a necessary step towards a more certain knowledge of
the specific heat of gases at high temperatures; and the vital import-
ance of this subject is indicated by the brief explanation given above of
the method by which the determination of heat exchange between the
working charge and the walls of the cylinder can be made. So far the
Committee have only been able to present the curves given in fig. 15
as representing the most reliable data available. The practical use to
which the curve can be put is illustrated by using the data given
by it to find the efficiency of an engine working on the Otto
cycle without loss of heat assuming that the mixture used is that

200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

specified near the curve in fig. 15, this mixture being very much
nearer the actual mixture used in a gas-engine than air.

Thermal Efficiency.

Efficiency calculated from Efficiency of the

2 the curve and for the ae :
oF mixture given in fig. 13 air standard
2 “187 242

3 273 +356

+ ‘337 -426

3 “384 475

The Committee are of opinion that they can usefully continue their
work by organising research on the lines which have been foreshadowed
in this report. The Committee recommend, therefore, that they be
again re-appointed, and that, in view of the expensive nature of the
research and the organisation involved, the sum of 100/. be granted
to them.

Stress Distributions in Engineering Materials.—Report cf the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. PERRY (Chairman),
Professors E. G. Coxer and J. E. PETAvEL (Secretaries),
Professor A. Barr, Dr. C. CHREE, Mr. GILBERT CooK, Pro-
fessor W. E. Datpy, Sir J. A. Ewine, Professor L. N. G.
Firion, Messrs. A. R. Furron and J. J. Guest, Professors
J. B. Henperson and A. EK. H. Love, Mr. W. Mason, Sir
ANDREW NosLeE, Messrs. F. Rocrers and W. A. ScoBueE, Dr.
T. EK. Sranton, and Mr. J. S. Wimson, to report on Certain
of the More Complex Stress Distributions in Engineering
Materials.

THE reports presented at the Birmingham Meeting of the Association
led the Committee to the view that the co-ordination of the results of
various researches was rendered difficult by the diversity of the materials
used in the tests. It was therefore thought desirable to obtain complete
and systematic data with regard to three definite materials, namely,
a mild steel, a ‘3 per cent. carbon steel, and a steel alloy.

In accordance with a resolution passed at the meeting of December 19,
1913, a stock of three tons standard steel has been obtained for the Com-
mittee by Dr. F. Rogers. This consists of :—(1) Dead mild steel (carbon
‘12 per cent.) ; (2) Axle steel (carbon ‘3 per cent.) ; (3) Nickel steel.

Some of the steel has already been sent to various members of the
Committee, and in due course full information will be available with
regard to the behaviour of the three materials under a large number of
different tests.

The mild steel was kindly presented to the Committee by Messrs.
Steel, Peech, and Tozer, and the axle steel by Messrs. Taylor Bros.

Information with regard to the manufacture of the standard steels
is given in an Appendix.

A report on the ‘ Experimental Determination of the Distribution
of Stress and Strain in Solids’ has been presented by Professors Coker
and Filon.

A paper on the ‘ Internal Stresses in a Built-up Steel Compression

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 201

Member,’ by Mr. H. Delépine, has been communicated by Professor
Petavel, and will be read at the meeting.

A number of members of the Committee have, during the past year,
been engaged on subjects dealt with in last year’s report, but in most
cases the experimental work is not yet completed.

The subjects under investigation are the following :—

Professor Coker and Mr. Scoble: Shear Tests.

Mr. Cook: Tests of the Physical Constants of the Standard Steels.

Messrs. Cook and Robertson: Further Work on the Strength of Thick
Cylinders.

Mr. Fulton: Alternating Stress at Low Frequencies.

Mr. Guest and Professors Dixon and Lea: Combined Stresses.

Mr. Mason: Repeated Combined Stresses.

Dr. Rogers: Alternating Stress, Heat Treatment, and Microscopical
Examination.

Mr. Scoble: Repeated Combined Stresses.

Dr. Stanton: Repeated Shear Tests.

Mr. Mason has installed, in the Engineering Laboratory at the Uni-
versity of Liverpool, a machine specially designed for experimental work
on alternating bending, alternating torsion, and simultaneous alternating
bending and torsion. He has also constructed an apparatus for measure-
ment of hysteresis.

Dr. Stanton has made arrangements to test the standard steels, firstly
by reversals of simple shearing stress, then by superimposing bending
and direct stresses.

Mr. Guest and Professors Dixon and Lea have completed the erection
of their apparatus, and are engaged in preliminary experimental work.

The Committee ask to be re-appointed with a grant of 1001.

APPENDIX.

Outline of Manufacture of the Standard Steels.
By Dr. F. Rocers.

No. 1 Steel. (-12 per cent. Carbon.)

The materials used in the manufacture of this steel are hematite pig
iron, steel scrap and ore of the purest descriptions, melted very carefully
in the acid open hearth furnace.

The composition is adjusted by the addition of ferro-manganese,
after which the metal is cast into ingot-moulds. The ingots are then
rolled, with several heatings, into bars, which are reeled when black-hot,
giving a straightening and burnishing effect without injuring the steel.

This metal is suitable for high-class mild steel.

The bars supplied to the Committee are the whole usable portion of
two ingots, and weigh nearly 224 cwts.

No. 2 steel (‘3 per cent. carbon).

Report not yet received.

No. 3 steel (34 per cent. nickel).

Report not yet received.

Experimental Determination of the Distribution of Stress and Strain
in Solids. By Professors Frton and Coxer.
Very little has been done hitherto in the way of determining directly the
distribution of stresses and strains in the interior of an elastic solid. The

202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

investigations which have been made deal almost exclusively with the
more restricted case of two-dimensional stress and strain, or of stress and
strain in a thin plate parallel to the faces of the plate itself, a problem
known to elasticians as that of ‘ generalised plane stress.’ !

In these cases two methods have proved available. The first method
consists in measuring directly the deformations of the body studied,
by observing the actual distortion of a face of the solid parallel to the
plane of strain. In practice this may be done by ruling this face into
squares and observing, with a kathetometer or micrometer, the relative
shifts of various parts of the network. From these, the extent by which
the angle at a node of the network has been changed from a right angle
can easily be found, and this quantity, as is well known, measures the
shearing strain (or ‘slide,’ according to a terminology followed by many
writers on elasticity, who reserve the word ‘ shear ’ to denote the shearing-
stress).

In this way values of the shearing-strain are obtained at the various
nodes of the network. Again, the changes of distance between adjacent

E
E. h
E

alas

Fra. 1.

nodes can be found, and from these, if the squares of the network are
sufficiently small, the extensions at the various nodes, parallel to the
lines of the net, can be obtained.

The plane-strain can, therefore, be mapped out over the whole face of
the solid which is under observation. If this method is to give satis-
factory results it must be applied to materials where the strains are
comparatively large. It has been applied with considerable success by
Professor Karl Pearson (1) and various workers associated with him to
models of dams constructed of gelatine-glycerine jelly, and in this way
various results of interest in the theory of masonry dams have been
obtained, although it cannot be said that the complete system of stresses
in such dams is yet known with any certainty. In other cases measure-
ments of the distortions produced in circles described on the face of a
model have been used to determine the principal strains and their direc-
tions, as in the experiments of Messrs. Wilson and Gore (2).

Dr. H. N. da C. Andrade (3) has also employed a block of jelly to
investigate the distribution of slide in such a block when two of its opposite

} Love, Theory of Hlastictty, p. 135,

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 203

faces AB, CD (Fig. 1) constrained to remain plane and parallel and un-
disturbed are given a translatory displacement relative to each other,
parallel to their plane.

Dr. Andrade found that along the middle plane EF of the block (half-
way, that is, between the two faces whose displacement was prescribed)
the distribution of slide gave two maxima at points H, K distant about
one-sixth of the length from the unstressed faces perpendicular to the
plane of strain, the slide falling gradually to a minimum at O.

For a section E’ F’ near the middle plane an effect of the same type
occurred, but was less marked. For a section EK” EF” near the face CD
where the constraint was applied the slide remained fairly uniform over
the greater part of the length of the section, going down rapidly at the
ends to the value zero at CD.

The problem attacked experimentally by Dr. Andrade is one of which
no exact theoretical solution is known. Dr. Andrade himself attempted
to fit his conditions by an approximate solution, but either through the
failure of the approximation, or from some other cause, the results of
observation and calculation agreed only qualitatively.

The second method used for the investigation of the distribution of
stresses inside a plate subjected to stress in its own plane depends on the
property, discovered by Sir David Brewster in 1816, and independently
by Fresnel, that glass and other isotropic transparent substances become
doubly refracting under stress.

Since then this effect has been studied by a number of observers (4).
It may be taken as fairly well established that when a ray of polarised
light traverses a plate stressed in its own plane, it is broken up into two
components, polarised along the two lines of principal stress at the point
where the ray crosses the plate, and the relative retardation of these two
rays on emergence in air is

C7(P—Q),

where rt = thickness of the plate, P and Q are the two principal mean
stresses in the plane of the plate, and C is a co-efficient depending upon
the material and the wave-length of the light (5).

Clerk Maxwell (6) was the first to go fairly fully into the theory of the
appearances presented when a plate under varying stress in its own plane
is placed between crossed Nicols. He showed that the light is restored
at all points except those for which :

(a) The lines of principal stress are parallel to the axes of the Nicols.

Since the condition for extinction of the light is here independent of
the wave-length, these lines will be quite black. These may be called the
lines of equal inclination or isoclinic lines.

(6) The principal stress-difference has such a value that Cr(P—Q) is an
exact multiple of the wave-length.

These will be lines of equal principal stress-difference, and will give
a different set of lines for different wave-lengths. They are thus, in
general, brilliantly coloured, the same stress-difference corresponding
tothesame tint. The only exception is the line corresponding to P—Q=0.

These may be called (following Maxwell) the zsochromatic lines, the
black line corresponding to P—Q=0 being called the neutral line.

Observations of the isoclinic lines have the advantage that these lines
are exhibited under comparatively small stress and are independent of
the co-efficient C. Their use does not, therefore, require straining the

204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

material to an extent likely to produce permanent set, and they can be
shown by comparatively thin specimens. Also they do not require any
previous investigation of the co-efficient C for the given material, or of its
dependence upon the wave-length.

In theory observation of the isoclinic lines is sufficient to determine
the stress system, provided we have information as to the actual stresses
at a very limited number of points (7). Such information is generally
available from the known boundary conditions. -

On the other hand, the calculations required to actually deduce the
stresses from the isoclinic lines are complicated, and are very difficult
to apply to cases where the data are expressed by purely empirical curves.

The isoclinic lines are, therefore, better suited to experimental verifica-
tion of stress distribution already known from theory, and for which the
theoretical isoclinic lines can be calculated beforehand and compared
with observation. They have been so used by M. Corbino and Trabacchi
(8) using rings of gelatine to verify Volterra’s (9) theory of internal strains
in a multiply connected elastic solid; and also by Filon (10), who used
glass beams to verify the ordinary theory of stresses in a beam at a distance
from points of isolated loading, and also his own theory of the distribution
of stress in a beam near a point of isolated loading. Both Corbino and
Trabacchi, and Filon found that their experimental results confirmed the
predictions of the theory of elasticity (11). Carus Wilson (12), who used
in his investigation both the isoclinic and the isochromatic lines, was the
first to apply the optical method to discover the laws of stress distribution
in a glass beam, doubly supported and centrally loaded.

He gives a drawing of the lines of principal stress in such a beam, but
does not use them further, and restricts his comparison of theory with
experiment, to the stresses in the cross-section immediately under the load ;
the theory with which he compares his results was originally given by
Boussinesq (13), and treats the height of the beam as infinitely thick. Sir
G. G. Stokes gave, in a note to Carus Wilson’s paper, an empirical correc-
tion to Boussinesq’s theory. An exact theory of this problem has since
been given by Filon (14).

The use of the isochromatic lines and generally of experiments de-
pending upon tint has this advantage, that it yields directly the value
of the stress-difference P—Q. If this be combined with a determination
of the direction of principal stress at each point, then considerable direct
information is given at once, and some cases of practical importance have
been examined by Hénigsberg and Dimmer (15).

The determination both of P—Q and of the directions of principal
stress may be combined in one measurement, which is very simply made
by means of an apparatus due to Coker (16). Coker uses a thin celluloid
plate, cut to represent an engineering structure in which it is desired to
investigate the stresses. This is a more easily worked material than glass,
and a lesser thickness is required, as its stress-optical co-efficient is con-
siderable. To obtain a measure of the stress-difference at any point a
tension member is placed in front of the strained model, in a direction
corresponding to one of the principal axes of stress, and the colour effect
produced in the loaded model is neutralised by applying a sufficient load
to this calibrating member. The tensional stress T affords a measure of
the difference of the principal stresses (P—Q) subject to a small correction
when (P—Q) and T have different signs.

An improved way of doing this, which saves these repeated adjust-

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 205

ments of T,is to use a test-piece under pure flexure (without shear) in its
own plane. This can be readily produced in a straining frame as in the
accompanying diagram. The stress will then vary linearly from P to Q
and may be read off along a scale PQ, which can be previously calibrated
against a specimen under known tension.

A little sideways shift of the test-plate is then all that is required to
compensate the stress-difference at any given point, provided that the
direction of principal stress had been found previously.

Coker has used a calibration tension member to determine the distribu-
tion of stress in plates of various shapes—for example, in tension specimens

pierced with circular holes, decks of ships with various openings, cement
briquettes, &c. (17). He has also (18) investigated Andrade’s problem
of the block whose opposite faces slide with regard to one another re-
maining undistorted, and he obtains by this optical method a distribution
of shear very similar to that obtained by Andrade from direct measure-
ments of the slide. Mr. Scoble and he have also applied this method to
determine the distribution of stress due to a rivet in a plate (19).

The photo-elastic determination of stress carried out in this way does
not, however, determine the stress in the plate completely. It will be
noticed that all the method gives is the principal stress-difference at any
point. If each principal stress at a given point be increased by any
arbitrary quantity, the appearances are in no wise altered. To obviate
this, Coker has used the stretch-squeeze effect in the plate to measure
the sum P—Q of the principal stresses, a suggestion due originally to
Mesnager (20). For clearly, if r be the thickness of the plate, 1 Poisson’s
ratio, the plate, at the point where the principal stresses are P, Q, will
become thinner by an amount 77(P+Q) an amount which is small,
but with delicate instruments not impossible to measure.

It will be noticed that this provides yet a third method for exploring
the field of stress in a plate.

There is, however, no necessity for doing this, as the information
derived from the known values of the stress-difference and the direction
of the lines of principal stress can be readily applied to find the complete
system of stresses.

Let the axes of x and y be taken in the plane of the plate. Let P and
Q now denote the normal stresses across elements dy and dz respectively,
S the shearing stress across either of the above elements. Then, if the

206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

lines of principal stress make an angle a with the axes, and if R is the
principal stress-difference, it is well known that

P=OQ=R cos 2a
2S=R sin 2a.

Thus a determination of R and a at every point Yeads to the value
of 8 at all points.

On the other hand, considering the equilibrium of a small rectangle
dz, dy and neglecting body-forces, we have the well-known body stress
equations for generalised plane strain,

sy eae ie wis
Se Sp ae ayaa.

Now, at a point of the boundary, all the stresses will be known.
For the normal stress across an element of the boundary where the
outwards normal makes an angle with the axis of wis

P cos? 6+Q sin? 64258 cos 6 sin 6

z= ae + ae cos 20+8 sin 20.
S and P—Q being known from optical data, and the normal stress across
the boundary being also known from the boundary conditions, the above
equation determines P+-Q and hence (P—Q being known) P and Q.
Consider now a point A of the plate. Draw a line through A parallel
to the axis of « to meet the nearest boundary at a point Ao (@p, y).
Then, integrating the equation

éP , 38

bu OY
along the line Ay A, we find
P— Pa -\5 da,
oy

where P, is the value of P at Ay.
Similarly, if a line through A parallel to the axis of y meets the nearest
boundary at a point Bo (x, yo) when the value of Q is Qo,

Yo
Now, if we know the value of S at all points, the values of the partial

’ : : 58
differential co-efficients dy’? dy, can be obtained approximately by

taking differences. P and Q can then be found as above by the ordinary
process of graphical integration, Pj, Q) being known, as explained. This
method can be used with any set of experimental data, provided only that
these are accurate enough to allow of differences being taken to calculate

Se’ By In any case, before actually applying the method, the curves for
S when either « = constant or y = constant should be ‘smoothed’ so

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 207

as to take out accidental inequalities. A check on the accuracy of the
calculation is easily provided, for the calculated P—Q should agree with
the value optically observed.

In many problems it is known that one of the normal stresses is through-
out verysmall. In this case, if Q, say, is nearly zero, we have P=R cos 2a,
and the stress difference leads easily to the complete system of stresses.
This assumption has been made by Coker in his earlier papers, but it
would seem desirable to justify it more fully.

NOTKS.

(References to these are given in the text.)

(1) Karl Pearson, A. F. C. Pollard, C. W. Wheen, and L. F. Richardson :
An Experimental Study of the Stresses in Masonry Dams. (Drapers’
Company Research Memoirs: Technical Series V.)

(2) J. S. Wilson and W. Gore: Stresses in Dams. ‘ Proc. Inst. C.E.,’
1908.

(3) H. N.daC. Andrade : The Distribution of Slide in a Right Six-face
Subject to Pure Shear. ‘R.S. Proc. A.,’ vol. 85, pp. 448-461.

(4) Sir David Brewster: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1816, p. 156. ‘ Annales de
Chimie et de Physique,’ vol. xx. Fresnel : ‘ @uvres d’Augustin Fresnel,’
tome 1, p. 713. F. E. Neumann, ‘ Abh. d. k. Acad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin,’
1841, vol. ii., p. 50-61. See also ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ vol. liv. John Kerr:
* Phil. Mag.,’ 1888, ser. 5, vol. 26, No. 161. G. Wertheim: ‘ Annales de
Chimie et de Physique,’ ser. 3, vol. xl., p. 156.

(5) F. Pockels: ‘Ueber die Aenderung des optischen Verhaltens
Verschiedener Glaser durch elastische Deformation,’ Ann. d. Physik, 1902,
ser. 4, vol. 7, p. 745. L.N.G. Filon: On the Variation with the Wave-
length of the Double Refraction in Strained Glass, ‘Camb. Phil. Soc.
Proc.,’ vol. xi. Pt. vi., vol. xii. Pt.i., and vol. xii. Pt. v. On the Dispersion
in Artificial Double Refraction, ‘ Phil. Trans. A.,’ vol. 207, pp. 263-306
(1907). Preliminary Note on a New Method of Measuring directly the
Double Refraction in Strained Glass, ‘ R.S. Proc. A.,’ vol. 79, pp. 440-442
(1907). Measurements of the Absolute Indices of Refraction in Strained
Glass, ‘ R.S. Proc. A.,’ vol. 83, pp. 572-578 (1910). On the Temperature
Variation of the Photo-elastic Effect in Strained Glass, ‘ R.S. Proc. A.,’
vol. 89, pp. 587-593 (1914).

(6) Clerk Maxwell: ‘ Trans. Roy. Soc. Hdin.,’ vol. xx., 1853, p. 1172 ;
or ‘ Collected Papers,’ vol. i.

(7) A proof of the statement in the text is as follows :—Let E be the
stress function for generalised plane stress (Love: ‘ Theory of Elasticity,’
pp- 86 and 446), P, Q, S the mean stresses 22, 77, 7 in the usual notation,
R the principal mean stress-difference, ¢ the angle which the lines of
principal stress make with the axes.

Then it is known that

R= (P—Q)"-+48"
tan 24=28/P—Q

25=P sin 2¢ P—Q=R cos 2¢.
Also the mean stresses are given in terms of the stress function by
9 D 2
paz? # °K ga od 0}

megs She Rage ae ay

208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Using the transformations

2é=r+-y
2n=x— Ly
we find readily
ré 10) 8 (OK
wes fe 2) a a le
= 2 (9) i aon 2
SS OTE THES: BP =— 55,
ed Dy _ &H
Q—P+2 2S= sa (1) Q—P—2.5 = op (2)
ako
Q+P=5- Sy (3)
From (1) and (2)
OK eH
pe —21p — = ae Hi a ee
Re 52 Re S72
Apo see
822 oy? (4)

Now, the isoclinic lines give ¢ as a function of a, y and therefore of €, y
for every point.
On the other hand, it is well known that E satisfies the equation

7) 0
vy
or
SE
82. 82

of which the solution is
=E, (£)+E.(y)+7E;(€)+-€H,(y) (5)

K,, Ey, E3, and Hy, being arbitrary functions.
(4) then gives

een] By"(Q4- my") ] Bs") +4") ()
Putting 7=0, €=0 successively in the identity (6)

Ey!" (€) =e 4b) 5 | B,"(0)+48,"(0) | (7)

By" (yg) =e Cm) ‘ [ #1"0)+7B"(0) (8)

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 209

Differentiating (6) with regard to &» and then putting €=0 and
n=0 respectively, we find

Bs"(={ 52. | By"(8)-+ nly’) Jeno

B= { 5 e-+4[ By"(n)+2,'Cn) | bo
4.€.,

Bn —=4e (58), Ba") tom {8,04 9850) | (9)

By"()= —4e( 58) Hy") | Hy(0)-+-€8/""(0) f (10)

Assume E,'’(0)=A, E3’’(0)=B, E,’”(0)=C, E3’’(0)=D.

Equations (7)-(10) determine E,”(7), Ey’’(n) and hence H,’(£), E,'’(é)
as homogeneous linear functions of A, B, C, D.

Hence E=Ae,+ Be,+Ce,+De,+ a€+ (3+ yén+s, where €1, C2, @3, C4
are now known functions and a, £, y, 6 are arbitrary constants.

The termsin a £ 6 do not affect the stresses and may be dropped.

The term y £ 7 may add y to P+Q.

If, now, the value of any stress be known at a given point, this leads
to a linear equation between A, B, C, D, y.

Hence the complete specification of the stress at two points leads to
six equations for A, B, C, D, yin like manner, if we consider the conditions
at the boundary, where two of the stresses are in general known, the con-
ditions at three points give six equations. In either case we have more
than enough equations to determine A, B, C, D, y.

Thus the stress conditions at a few points, together with the isoclinic
lines, determine the stress system completely.

(8) O. M. Corbino and Trabacchi: ‘ Rendiconti Acad. dei Lincei,’
vol. 18,1909. See also letter by O. M. Corbino in ‘ Nature,’ Jan. 16, 1913.

(9) Volterra: ‘ Annales de l’Ecole Normale de Paris,’ 1907.

(10) L. N. G. Filon: The Investigation of Stresses in a Rectangular
Bar by Means of Polarised Light, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ Jan. 1912.

(11) Volterra, loc. cit. Note (8); Corbino, loc. cit. Note (7). Filon,
loc. cit. Note (9) ; also Filon, ‘ Phil. Trans. A.,’ vol. 201, pp. 63-155.

(12) Carus Wilson: ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ ser. 5, Dec. 1891.

(13) Boussinesq: ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. 114, pp. 1510-1516. See
also Flamant : ‘Comptes Rendus,’ vol. 114, pp. 1465-1468.

(14) L.N.G. Filon: Onan Approximate Solution for the Bending of a
Beam of Rectangular Cross-section under any System of Load: ‘ Phil.
Trans. A.,’ vol. 201, pp. 63-155.

(15) O. Hénigsberg and G. Dimmer: Interferenzfarben beanspruchter
durchsichtiger Kérper. O. Hénigsberg: Unmittelbare Abbildung der
neutralen Schichte bei Biegung durchsichtiger Kérper in zirkularpolar-
isierten Licht, ‘International Association for Testing Materials,’ Brussels
Congress, 1906.

(16) E. G. Coker: The Determination by Photo-elastic Methods,
of the Distribution of Stress in Plates of Variable Section, with some
Applications to Ships’ Plating, ‘Transactions of the Institution of Naval
"eet See especially pp. 9-11.

14. P

210 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

(17) E. G. Coker: Paper cited in Note 14 and the following :—The
Optical Determination of Stress, ‘ Phil. Mag.,’? 1910. The Distribution of
Stress at the Minimum Section of a Cement Briquette, ‘ International
Association for Testing Material,’ 1912.. The Effects of Holes and Semi-
circular Notches on the Distribution of Stress in Tension Members, ‘ Phy-
sical Society of London,’ 1913.

(18) E. G. Coker: An Optical Determination of the Variation of
Stress in a Thin Rectangular Plate subjected to Shear, ‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.,’ 1912.

(19) E. G. Coker and W. A. Scoble: The Distribution of Stress due
toa Rivet in a Plate, ‘ Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects,’
1913.

(20) A. Mesnager: Mesure des efforts intérieurs dans les solides et
applications, ‘International Association for Testing Materials,’ Buda-
Pesth Congress, 1901.

The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. WiLLouGHBY GARDNER (Secre-
tary), Professor W. RipcEway, Sir ArTHUR J. Evans, Sir C.
HERcuLES READ, Mr. H. Batrour, and Mr. A. BULLEID,
appointed to investigate the Lake Villages in the Neighbour-
hood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society.
‘Drawn up by Mr. ARTHUR BULLEID and Mr. H. St. GEorGE
Gray, the Directors of the Excavations.)

Tur fifth season’s exploration of the Meare Lake Village by the
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society began on
May 13, 1914, and will be continued until May 27 (exclusive of filling
in). The ground being excavated is situated in the same field and is
continuous with the work of previous years. As the report has to be
sent in on May 22, while the excavations are in progress, any notes
regarding the work will necessarily be incomplete and curtailed. There
has been considerable difficulty this year in procuring labour, and it
is proposed to reopen the excavations in September. The digging
includes the examination of the ground situated to the north-east of
Dwelling-Mound V., south-east of Dwelling-Mound VII., the south-
west quarter of Dwelling-Mound IX., and the ground lying to the
north-east of Dwelling-Mound XVIII. There is little of interest, so
far, to note structurally, but the number and importance of the objects
found have been well maintained.

Tue REtics.

This report is called for before the season’s work is half completed,
and at a time when the excavators are only on the fringe of two well-
defined dwelling-mounds. Hence there is little to say with regard
to the relics so far discovered.

Bone.—The bone objects include part of two needles, worked tibia
of sheep and ox, tarsal and carpal bones of sheep, cut and perforated.

THE LAKE VILLAGES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GLASTONBURY. 211

shoulder-blades, polishing-bones; and a long tubular die with numbers,
3, 4, 5, 6, represented by small circular depressions on the sides,
and of a similar variety to those found in the Glastonbury Lake Village ;
also a piece of bone cut for the formation of two dice. A bone object
of a new type is the coarse comb of rude workmanship formed from
a rib-bone of ox or horse; there are eight large, clumsy teeth of varied
size, which bear evidence of considerable wear; it is quite of a different
character from the weaying-combs so frequently found in the lake
villages.

Crucibles.—Several fragments.

Bronze.—The bronze objects include a piece of bordering, two
fibule of safety-pin design (La Téne III.), one in almost perfect
condition, and a small ornamented ring-handle, perhaps of a vessel.
A long tubular object formed from a strip of sheet bronze was also
found, the working-end of which is trifurcated by splitting the metal
for a distance of about 2 inch, each of the divisions tapering to form
a three-pointed instrument.

Iron.—Parts of knives and fragments of pointed objects.

Flint.—A few flint flakes, some with secondary chipping.

Glass.—A perfect bead of clear white glass, ornamented with three
sunk spiral devices filled with a light yellow paste, has been added
to the bead series; and others have been found in addition.

Antler.—Part of a polished tine, a small tubular object, a cut piece
with partial perforations, two weaving-combs, ‘cheek-pieces,’ and
tool-handles.

Kimmeridge Shale.—Part of a fluted armlet of large size, lathe-
turned; and portions of three others.

Tusks.—Several boars’ tusks (? wild), including one perforated.

Querns.—No complete upper or lower stone has been found, but
several large portions ‘of well-worked saddle and rotary querns have
been uncovered in Mound IX.

Other Stone Objects.—Several sling-stones, found singly; a large
number of whetstones ; a few small smooth pebbles (perhaps calcult).

Spindle-whorls.—Six have been found so far, (a) one of baked clay,
(b) four of lias stone, (c) a part of one formed from an ammonite.

Baked Clay.—Several sling-bullets of fusiform shape have been
collected; also a large triangular loom-weight and fragments of others
in Mound IX.

Pottery.—No complete vessel has been found, but shards are very
abundant in proportion to the area dug. The rougher wares are strongly
represented, but a fair number of ornamented pieces have been
collected, including some new and elegant designs. Part of an orna-
mented pot-cover of a type previously found at Meare has been found;
also at least two separate fragments of Roman ware of the ‘ Burtle
type,’ obtained from below the alluvial deposits and on the original
surface of Roman times.

Animal Remains.—Large quantities of bones of domesticated
animals are being collected, chiefly of young animals. Many split
bones and splinters have been noticed. Bird-bones are also commonly
found. A cock-spur has also come to light at Meare, which implies that

P 2

212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the sport of cock-fighting, common in Gaul before the Roman conquest,
was carried on in the lake village of Meare, as well as in that of
Glastonbury.

The Committee are desirous that they should be authorised to act
for the ensuing year on the part of the British Association, and that
a grant of 20]. should be made in aid of the exploration that is mostly
paid for by local effort.

Physical Characters of the Ancient Egyptians.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor G. Exuior Smita (Chair-
man), Dr. F. C. SHRuBSALL (Secretary), Professor A. KEITH,
Dr. F. Woop JongEs, and Dr. C. G. SELIGMANN.

Professor Elliot Smith’s Report.

Tus report deals with two distinct series of anthropological material,
(A) one from Saqqara in Lower Egypt, and (B) the other from the
Southern part of the Kerma basin in the Sudan. Both collections
are of quite exceptional importance from their bearing upon the
history and the racial movements in the Nile Valley.

(A.) The Committee was appointed primarily with the object of
acquiring, studying, and, if feasible, transporting to England a valuable
and unique series of skeletons of Ancient Egyptians, buried in mastabas
of the Second and Third Dynasties at Saqqara, which Sir Gaston
Maspero, Director-General of the Egyptian Government Antiquities
Department, had placed at my disposal. The material was brought
to light in the course of the excavations carried on for the Antiquities
Department by its Senior Inspector, Mr. J. E. Quibell, who did
everything in his power to facilitate and help me in my investigations.
The cemetery in which the material was obtained is situated a short
distance to the north of the Pyramids of Saqqara, and included the
tomb of Hesy, from which the famous wooden portrait panels (now
in the Cairo Museum) were obtained by Mariette Pasha many years
ago. The tombs themselves are of very great interest, and will be
described in detail in Mr. Quibell’s official report, a summary of
which was read at the Dundee Meeting. They are the earliest known
examples of elaborate subterranean rock-cut tombs, and range in date
from the latter part of the Second Dynasty until well into the period
of the Third Dynasty. At the Dundee Meeting of the Association I
read Mr. Quibell’s account of this cemetery, from which the following
extracts ? have been taken :—

‘This is the area in which Mariette found most of his mastabas,
from which much of the knowledge of the Old Kingdom has been
obtained.’

1 Excavations at Saqqara, 1910-1911, Service des Antiquités de ]’Egypte.

2 These extensive quotations, not published hitherto, are necessary to explain
the importance and precise significance of the anthropological questions involved
in the study of the material, to the consideration of which I shall return in the
latter part of this report.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 213

‘ More than 400 tombs were dug and recorded: they were singularly
uniform in type and cover but a small period in time. Four were of
the First Dynasty, and the rest of the Second and Third. Intrusive
burials of later ages were confined to two periods, that of Thotmes ITI.
and (probably) late Ptolemaic, and were unimportant.’

‘In what follows we will confine ourselves to the Second and Third
Dynasties :—

‘ These tombs were most varied in size, but uniform in plan. One
was 50 métres long and 30 wide, but the one I have chosen as a type
was no more than 14 métres long, and even originally not 1 métre
high. It consists of a hollow oblong of unbaked brickwork filled in
with gravel and stone chip, plastered and whitewashed externally.
On the east side are two niches, the southern one being the larger and
the more important. Below the mastaba was a small stairway and a
subterranean chamber. The smaller tombs were often built in rows,
and their position parallel with the sides of the larger ones suggested
that they belonged to the servants or relatives of the great men.

“One tomb showed very clearly the origin of the later type in
stone. The niche has been withdrawn into the body of the building
and protected by a door. A small chamber is thus formed, and the
sides of this were, no doubt, decorated with paintings; later, when
stone replaced the crude brick, the scenes were made in low relief.
This is the form of most of the mastabas published by Mariette; the
more complex plans of the large tombs that have been left open are
_ exceptional.

‘The paths between the tombs were very narrow, hardly wide
enough for one man to pass, and among the larger tombs, where there
were walls 3 métres and more high, must have formed a perilous
maze. They were much used; offerings of minute quantities of food
were brought on every feast day and placed before the false doors in
little vases like egg-cups and saucers. Piles of these pots are found
thrown away near some of the tombs.

“Very little stone-work was found. Small tanks 20 centimetres
or so long occasionally remained before the niches, and in two cases
an inscribed stone panel depicting the deceased seated before his table
of offerings had escaped the search for lime. This panel appears in
the middle of the later stele of the Fifth Dynasty, of which it was
evidently the most important part.

“The sides of the niches may have borne painted decoration—
probably did so—but no trace of this remained.

‘In one mastaba, a very large one, the wall was double: the two
niches were carefully built in both the inner and the outer walls,
evidently in order that the inner one might retain its magical value,
even if the outer one were destroyed.

‘The space inside the four walls was generally filled with gravel
and with stone chip from the subterranean chamber, but in some of
the larger tombs the filling contained also a great number of coarse
vases, many crushed by the overlying gravel, but many also unbroken.
These we thought at first might have been the jars used by the work-
men for food, but some of them were of unbaked clay, and could hardly

214 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

have been used at all. In other cases, too, these vases had been
placed in orderly rows; in one the whole desert floor between the
walls of the tomb and the edge of the shaft had been covered with
these vases, with clods of black clay placed between them. It would
seem, then, that these were deposits intended to supplement the
furniture of the subterranean chamber.

“In the case here shown there can be little doubt. Below the
filling, hidden beneath 3 métres of gravel, we found a shallow trench
4 métre wide, once roofed with wood. Inside it were two rows of
jars or model barns, each 30 centimétres high, made of unbaked clay,
and containing a brown organic powder, probably decayed corn. The
trench is lined with brick, and from it a tiny tunnel, a handbreadth
wide and high, leads to the mouth of the shaft. This, surely, was a
secret supply of food for the dead man.

‘In three of the large tombs a still more elaborate provision was
made. A row of brick chambers, or tanks, was sunk in the floor of
the tomb, filled with jars, and covered with a course of brick. What
the jars contained is not clear; a very light organic matter, probably
a fat, filled the lower half of a few, but most of them were empty when
found. These chambers, or tanks, must, however, have once contained
something of value, for in one tomb they had been laboriously robbed.
A shaft had been sunk through the filling—in this case composed of a
very tough, dried mud—into one of the chambers, and from this
tunnels had been forced, sometimes through the walls, sometimes
above them through the mud filling, till all the eight chambers had
been rifled. The labour must have been considerable and the risk not
trifling: there was nothing to show how it had been repaid.

‘We now leave the structures above ground and come to the shaft.

‘This was nearly always in the form of a stair, sloping down
from the north or east to the chamber mouth. The stair often starts
from the east, near the north niche, and bends at a right-angle half-
way down; this would be practically useful while the digging was
going on, as it would stop a falling stone before it acquired an
awkward velocity. The shafts, like the tombs, vary much in size.
Some are 12 métres deep, some so small—l métre or less—that
the steps would be of no practical use.

‘Tn the larger and deeper tombs the steps are cut in the rock, are
of reasonable size, and evidently served their purpose in the excavation
of the chamber below; but in many of the moderate sized mastabas,
those 4 to 5 métres long, the steps are of brick, and are too narrow
and fragile for a man to stand on them. Shafts and steps in the
small tombs, and presumably also in the large ones, were carefully
plastered and whitewashed for the funeral ceremony. In small tombs
a low skirting wall a few inches in height was built round the shaft,
and this, too, was whitened. The upper part, the mastaba, was built
after the funeral. But in larger tombs this was not practical; the
works above and below ground had to go on together, so the stair
was fenced in by a separate wall.

‘Shafts were generally filled with gravel, the portcullis being relied
on to secure the mouth of the chamber; but in large tombs they were

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 215

filled with slabs of stone, packed in on edge, and in some cases a
pavement of heavy blocks was laid in above. A few stone vases were
occasionally placed in the shaft, and in one tomb a great numbér had
been laid on the steps of the stair. The same arrangement was found
by Garstang in a great tomb at Bét Khallaf.

‘The portcullis consisted of a large flat block of stone with
rounded edges, sometimes as much as 3 métres long and 1°5 métres
wide, which fitted into a groove cut in the rock. It must have been
lowered before the mastaba was built and chocked up so that its base
was above the door of the chamber. Ropes were used to aid in
lowering it; the channels cut by them were observed in one stone.

‘The chamber opened either on the south or west, very rarely the
north, never on the east.

‘Tt was generally a small, rudely-cut cave, too small to hold a
body laid at full length; this small rough chamber was the general
rule, but the larger tombs have a series of chambers of a somewhat
elaborate plan.

‘On passing the portcullis in these we find ourselves in a broad
passage, from which three or four chambers, probably magazines,
open on each side.

‘ A wide doorway at the end leads to a continuation of the passage,
and this to further chambers, in which there is some variety of plan;
but two features are constant. To the right—that is, to the 8.W.—
is the actual burial chamber with remains of a single skeleton; in the
S.-E. corner is a feature new in Egyptian tombs, and, surely, in any
other tombs-——viz., a dummy latrine; north of this, in two cases, was
a narrow chamber with rude basins carved in the floor—probably
meant for a bathroom. The provision for the dead was evidently more
thoughtful and complete than in later ages.

“In all these underground chambers the antiquities found were
somewhat disappointing. It is true that we did obtain a great number
of bowls and dishes of alabaster, diorite, and other stones—indeed, an
embarrassing quantity of them—also ewers and basins of copper,
occasionally a wooden piece from a draughtsboard, a box or a bit of
ivory inlay, and that the mud-seals on the vases were in three tombs
inscribed with Kings’ names, thereby giving us our assured dates for
the cemetery; but the ancient robbers had very different returns for
their labour ; there had certainly been quite other classes of monuments
of which no sample had survived. All the tombs except the very
smallest and poorest had been robbed, and robbed, too, at a very early
period: this was clear from the knowledge shown by the robbers of
the construction, and the skill with which they penetrated to the burial
chamber with a minimum of labour. Sometimes the earth inside the
chamber had been passed through a sieve: this shows that the second
robber had found some gold beads left behind by the first; he (the
first one) would not need a sieve—he found the coffin and all the
furniture lying clear.

“We assume that there was a coffin in all cases—indeed, fragments
were often found, but complete coffins remained in four tombs only,
and these four of the poorest.

‘They are short, with panelled sides and arched square-ended lid:

216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.,

two niches are made in the east side. In one coffin, the east side
of which alone is here shown, the central panels are covered with
a series of slabs; these are rounded at the ends and do not, as one
would expect, butt against or mortise into the uprights; this suggests
that they are in imitation of a door.’ [Similar coffins were subse-
quently found by Professor Flinders Petrie in a contemporary cemetery
on the opposite bank of the river. |

‘When the east side of the coffin is taken away the body appears,
sharply contrasted, with head to the north and face east. The limbs
are swathed in linen bands, and masses of linen folded together lie
above the body. There was some little evidence of an attempt at
mummification, but no flesh remained on the bones; those of the
arm lay free inside a wide cylinder of wrappings, which retained the
shape of the limb. The preservation of these coffins and bodies was
partial; some of the wood was quite sound, other pieces could not be
moved. So of the cloth; some had been eaten by white ants, but
some was in admirable preservation.

“About fifty skeletons and parts of skeletons were found in fair
condition, and these, happily, owing to the visit of Professor Elliot
Smith, could be carefully examined, some of them before they had
been touched.

“In one only of all these four hundred tombs have paintings been
found, but this is of very considerable interest, and the paintings are
so extensive that our time for a whole season has been mainly
occupied in copying them. This is the tomb of Hesy.

‘The panels of Hesy have been, for more than forty years, in
the Museum; they were brought there by Mariette, who discovered
them and attributed them, correctly, to the Third Dynasty.’

These quotations from Mr. Quibell’s report will make it clear
that we are dealing with the remains of the very people who were
responsible for technical inventions of far-reaching importance in the
history, not merely of Egyptian craftsmanship, but of that of the
whole world. This series of tombs reveals the stages in the acquisi-
tion of the means of cutting out extensive rock tombs; and it is a
matter of considerable significance to determine the precise racial
characteristics of the people who invented and were the first to practise
these arts and crafts which were destined to exert so profound an
influence on the world’s culture.

The crucial importance of the human remains buried in these
tombs depends upon the fact that the earliest bodies hitherto found
in Lower Egypt (exclusive of those brought to light at Turah in the
winter of 1909-1910 by Professor Hermann Junker, and described by
Dr. Derry, to which reference will be made later) belonged to a later
period-—Fourth to Sixth Dynasties—and revealed undoubted evidence
of considerable alien admixture, such as does not occur, except in rare
sporadic instances, in the earlier remains from Upper Egypt. The
problem for solution was the determination of when and how this
process of racial admixture began.

The contemporary and earlier material found by Professor Junker
upon the opposite (east) bank of the river, and a little further north,

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 217

was in a very bad state of preservation, and no adequate photographic
record was obtained to permit of exact comparisons with other collec-
tions. But Dr. Derry’s report, which seems to suggest that the alien
element in these poorer graves did not become certainly appreciable
until the time of the Third Dynasty, served to add to the interest of
Mr. Quibell’s material, and to make it more than ever desirable to
secure and preserve a collection of such crucial importance for the
investigation of the problems of Egypt’s anthropological history.

The chief difficulty that faced me was how satisfactorily to deal
with a collection of most fragile bones, a large proportion of which
were certain to become damaged, more or less severely, during trans-
port. As there was no anthropologist on the spot to measure and
make descriptive notes on the material, it was proposed to employ
experts to photograph each skull, and other important bones, before
they were treated with size, or other strengthening agent, in prepara-
tion for transport to England.

But, while preparations were being made for carrying out this
scheme, most of the difficulties were removed by the fact that the
Egyptian Government requested me to go out to Egypt in connection
with the work of the Archeological Survey of Nubia, and it thus
became possible to visit Mr. Quibell’s excavations in person, to
examine and measure all the material on the spot, to supervise the
work of photographing and packing it for transmission to England.
It was possible to do so much in the short time at my disposal,
because Mr. Quibell and his trained workmen afforded every help,
and Mr. Cecil M. Firth and his native photographic assistant,
Mahmud Shaduf, of the Nubian Archeological Survey, volunteered
to help. Mr. Firth took about a hundred and thirty photographs of
the material. Every help was also given by the Egyptian Survey
Department in the loan of instruments and other apparatus. Further-
more, the authorities at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
in London offered to take charge of and repair the material on its
arrival, and to grant me every facility for its investigation.

Full notes and photographs were obtained of all human material
rescued by Mr. Quibell, consisting of the remains of thirty-nine
individuals of the Second and Third Dynasties, most of which is now
safely housed in the Royal College of Surgeons’ Museum. At the
outset it may be stated that the material closely resembles the human
remains of the Pyramid Age found in neighbouring sites of a some-
what later date. There are quite definite evidences of some racial
influence alien to the Proto-Egyptian race; but the difficult problem is
raised as to how much of the contrast in the features of the two
populations—Upper Egyptian and Lower Egyptian at the Second
and Third Dynastic Periods—is due to admixture and blending; and
how much, if any, is due to the specialisation in type of the Delta
portion of the Proto-Egyptian people.

The investigation also revealed some suggestion of attempts at
mummification as early as the Second Dynasty—a fact of some
interest, as the earliest undoubted case of mummification is referred
to the Fourth or Fifth Dynasty (more probably the latter), and no

218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

evidence has been obtained before of attempted mummification of a
body which was not buried in the fully extended position.

While in Egypt I took the opportunity of comparing the Saqqara
skulls directly with the type collection of Predynastic skulls in the
Anatomical Museum of the Cairo School of Medicine, and also with
skulls of the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties at Dr. George Reisner’s
excavations (for Harvard University and Boston Museum) at the
Giza Pyramids.

For convenience of comparison I have followed the plan and used
the notation explained in the Report on the Archeological Survey of
Nubia (1910), vol. i., p. 40.

Detailed Statement of the Results of Examination of the
Human Remains.

2102 F.* Man about forty-five years of age, with well-defined
alien traits.t Buried in a small mastaba with degraded stair placed
alongside a big mastaba. A very big, broad, full ovoid calvaria, with
large bregmatic bone and squarish orbits, and narrow high-bridged
nose. The rest of the face and mandible are missing (that is, were
not gaved by Mr. Quibell). LL. (maximum length of cranium in milli-
métres) 205, B (maximum breadth of cranium) 146, F.B. (minimal
frontal breadth) 98, H. 135, L.O. 38 x 34.

2104 G. A man with a short and very perfect, well-filled ovoid
skull, which does not conform to the Egyptian type; rounded orbits ;
long narrow nose; jaw of distinctly alien type. L.176, B. 139, H. 137
(approximately), F.B.90, T:F.119, U.F. 73, Biz. 122, Interorb. 21,
N. 50 x 23, R.O. 39. x 35, L.0. 36 x 84.

2164 J. A characteristic example of the type of skull (male) alien
to Egypt, which was found at Giza and also at the Biga Cemetery at
Nubia. It has large, obliquely placed, squarish orbits; prominent
narrow-bridged nose, with very projecting sharp margins and long
nasal spine; a broad face with the zygomatic arches curved strongly
outward; a jaw with a wide chin; and a ramus which is narrow,
moderately high, and has a big coronoid process. The skull is a
short, broad, full ovoid; there is a straight line of brow and nose;
very deep conceptaculz cerebelli, associated .with manifestation of
an occipital vertebra. L.174, B.134, F.B.93, H.136, Biz. 130,
mH 19 UR TL C28.) 99) Rope Oe imnteronb. 22:00 hr Oe aimee
L.0. 87°5x36, N. 515x205, Big. 102°5. Femur, rough estimate
of length, 486. One molar is carious, and there is widespread but
slight periostitis of the leg-bones and pelvis. The pelvis and leg-
bones are very big and massive. ©

2104 N.W. Woman,. probably about twenty-eight years of age.
The skull is a broad, flat ovoid (or beloid), with markedly sloping
forehead, the profile passing without break into the nose (‘ Greek

5 Distinguishing number of the grave in Mr. Quibell’s Archeological Report.

* In using the term ‘alien traits’ I refer to features which are foreign to
the Proto-Egyptian people as well as to the Brown Race in general. In most
cases—as for example this instance—these foreign features, such as ‘a very big,
broad, full ovoid calvaria,’ ‘squarish orbits,’ and ‘narrow high-bridged nose’
are distinctive of the Armenoid population of Western Asia.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 219

Fie. 1.

Fia. 2, Fia. 3.

220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

profile’); square orbits with rounded angles; nose moderately broad
and not very prominent, but the nasal spine is large. In most
respects the mandible conforms to the Proto-Egyptian type, but the
ramus shows a tendency towards the form distinctive of the Biga
population (see ‘ Report of the Archaeological Survey of Nubia,’ 1907- -
1908, vol. i.). The teeth are perfectly healthy. The femur is small
and slender, with slight flattening of the upper part of the shaft. The
length of the right femur is 407, and the diameter of its head 38.
iy. 178"5,) B. 138, © #.B.93;" B.132,: Biz; 122, fa 120; Welw,
C.B. 102, F.B. 98, Interorb. 245, R.O. 39x34, L.O. 36345,
N. 55x27, Big. 87, Sym. 36.

2104 H.E. This is a man about twenty or twenty-one years of
age, with a curious blending of the features seen in the skeletons of
the man 2104 J. and the woman 2104 N.W., having the cranial
features of the former and the facial traits of the latter. The skull
is a moderately broad, well-filled ovoid, with a sloping forehead and
a profile like 2104 N.W. The nose also resembles that of the latter,
but is also curiously like that found in the Nubian people at the time
of the Middle Kingdom. Its lower margins are rounded. The orbits
are not quite so square as those of N.W., being almost elliptical and
oblique. The teeth are perfectly healthy and unworn. ‘The large
size of the canines and incisors has produced slight prognathism.
The left tibia is 306 in length; its epiphyses are just consolidating.
e165; B. 141, 2B, 97, OH. 1385; Biz. 131, T.F. 1205, Ue.
Interorb. 27, R.O. 40x33, L.O. 38x33, N. 52°5x26, Big. 86, Sym. 35.

2162. An elderly man with the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid
sutures almost completely closed. The teeth are well worn, but
healthy, excepting for a ‘ perforation abscess ’° at the root of the lower
right first molar. There is, however, a considerable amount of tartar
deposit on the teeth. The cranium is a big ovoid or beloid, with
prominent superciliary ridges; small, flat, horizontal orbits; small,
narrow, high-bridged, sharp-edged nose; a wide jaw, with broad chin,
and a moderate ramus of alien form, with out-splayed angles. There
is evidence of severe arthritis in the left temporo-mandibular joint.
The face conforms to a type which is often seen in the Dynastic
Kgyplian. L.198, B. 139, H.136, «8.B. 9%, Big. 105) ‘Siete;
T.F. 113, U.F.69, Biz. 134, N.54x25, Interorb. 26, L.0. 38x29,
R.O. 37 x 30.

2116 N. This skeleton is probably a woman’s. It conforms to
the Proto-Egyptian type, the mandible being quite typical, and the
skull a long ellipsoid, which is well filled. None of the cranial sutures
show any sign of closing, although the teeth are moderately worn
and encrusted with deposits of tartar. L. 181, B. 129, F.B. 93.

2146. A middle-aged or elderly man, with a full ovoid or
beloid skull, with flattened occiput, somewhat rounded orbits, and
moderately prominent nose. The coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid
sutures are closing, and the teeth are worn down, and there are

5 By this term I refer to an alveolar abscess, which is not due to dental
caries, but originates by infection through the pulp cavity of a tooth, which has
been exposed by excessive wearing-down.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 221

several ‘ perforation abscesses.’ There is thinning of the-left parietal
bone. L. 183, B. 139, H. 146, F.B. 93, U.F. 72, Biz. 180, N. 53°5 x25,
Interorb. 24, L.O. 38x33, R.O. 38x33.

2152. Middle-aged man, whose coronal and sagittal sutures are
beginning to close. The teeth are well worn down, and there are
four ‘ perforation abscesses,’ that associated with the upper left second
molar opening by a large perforation into the maxillary antrum. The
jaw is 1 big, heavily built ovoid, with well-marked muscular impres-
sions and prominent superciliary ridges. The orbits are flat and
horizontal, the nose is narrow with a prominent high-bridged root.
Soyrod. b.138, H. 138,. F.B. 100, U.F. 69, Bia. 135, N...49.x 24:5,
Interorb. 24, L.O. 40x32, R.O. 40x 33.

2170. A man whose coronal suture is beginning to close, and
whose perfectly healthy teeth are only slightly worn. The skull is a
big, well-filled ovoid, with sloping forehead and moderate superciliary
ridges. The face is short and broad, with small, narrow nose and
very flat orbits. The jaw is heavily built, but its form is Proto-
Beyotian: ~ 1.187, B.141;. F.B.95, H.138, . Big. 131, ,T.F.110,
U.F. 67, Interorb. 25, R.O. 40x 32, R.O. 40x 33.

2170. A man whose coronal suture is beginning to close, and
whose perfectly healthy teeth are only slightly worn. The skull is a
big, well-filled ovoid, with sloping forehead and moderate superciliary
ridges. The face is short and broad, with small, narrow nose and
very flat orbits. The jaw is heavily built, but its form is Proto-
Kgyptian. L.187, B.141, F.B.95, H.138,, Big.131, T.F.110,
WD. 67, Interorb. 25, R.O. 40x 30°5, L.O. 38 x 30°5, N. 53 x 24.

2173 D. This is a child of nine or ten years, with a typical Proto-
Egyptian pentagonoid skull.

2172 B. This is a woman of twenty years, or perhaps a little
more, with a small head of Proto-Egyptian type, and well filled
pentagono-ovoid form; the nose has a small horizontal, elliptical,
flattened bridge; small mandible, with a very pointed chin: the
zygomatic arches are laterally compressed. The teeth are in excellent
condition and practically unworn. L.178, B. 128, F.B.85, H. 129,
Biz. 116 (estimated), T.F. 111, U.F. 68, C.B. 98, F.B. 94, Interorb.
24, R.O. 38x27, L.O. 35x28, N. 46x24'5, Big. 82, Sym. 35, Sig. 45.

2172 E.B. A woman with very perfect, small, well-filled ovoid or
ellipsoid cranium. The face might be Proto-Egyptian, but the large
orbits and prominent-spined nose suggest alien affinities. The coronal
suture is beginning to close. L.173, B.130, F.B.90, H. 1385,
Biz. 121, T.F: 102, Interorb. 20, R.O. 37x32, L.0.38x32, N. 48x23.

2172 a (? or B). This is a man with teeth moderately worn, but
quite healthy. Sutures all open. Long pentagonoid cranium with a
markedly bombé occipital. Prominent superciliary ridges thickening
whole upper edge of orbits meet across the mid-line, overhanging the
depressed and flattened root of the nose. Orbits flattened; nose wide;
typical Proto-Egyptian jaw, with pointed chin and _ characteristic
ramus. 9.194, B. 1365, H. 141, F..95,, T.F. 107, U.F. 66, Biz. 130,
N. 49x30, L.0. 38x30, R.O. 39x29, Interorb. 23°5.

2173. A woman about twenty-one years of age. Teeth healthy.

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Typical Proto-Egyptian pentagonoid skull, with small, broad, flat-
bridged nose (nasals fused), not separated by any depression from the
frontal; oblique orbits, and typical high ramus and coronoid process
of the alien type of jaw. L. 173, B. 133, H. 133, F. 92, T.F. 110,
U.F. 67, N. 47x 23°5, Interorb. 24, R.O. smashed.

2173 A. This is a woman with teeth well worn; left upper molars
carious, abscesses at all upper molars. Temporal part of coronal
suture closed, as well as the whole sagittal and part of lambdoid.
Big broad ovoid head, with senile thimning commencing. Broad face
with out-curved zygomatic arches and out-splayed angles of jaw.
Long, very narrow nose, with prominent spine, but not very high
bridge. Large square orbits, with deficient lateral walls. Left femur
is severely affected by osteomyelitis, according to Professor Ferguson,
of Cairo, who had taken the bone before I arrived at Saqqara. Large
inflammatory excavation in front of right sacro-iliac joint. L. 183,
B. 137, F. 96°5, H. 135, Biz. 183, T.F. 125, U.F. 80, Interorb. 23,
R.O. 39x 365, L.O. 40x 37, N. 55x 23, Big. 106.

2173 D. A woman’s skull, almost edentulous, but all the sutures
are still open. A broad, flat, beloid cranium associated with a small
infantile face, “.175)'B; 138; PB, 90) HB. 117, Biz. 1195 PEO,
U.F. 69, R.O. 37x 30, L.O. 36x31, N. 52x 22.

2175. A man with all upper incisors and right canine teeth gone,
probably the result of some alveolar disease, leaving now a large hole
about 27 mm. in diameter. The three principal sutures are closed.
Has a large, lofty, well-filled ovoid skull. Face very long, narrow
and ovoid, with Proto-Egyptian type of orbits; but small, narrow,
high-bridged, sharp-margined nose. Pointed jaw with a high ramus,
set at so oblique an angle that the sigmoid height cannot be measured.
Ty. 185°5; BB. 144,’ FB) 96; Hi: 140, ‘Biz. 131, T:F.130, GEoave
(estimated), Interorb. 21, R.O. 41x 32, L.O. 40x32, N. 50x 24.

2262. A woman with a perfect set of healthy, almost unworn
teeth; temporal part of coronal suture closed. A big broad pentago-
noid skull with large alien jaw and rounded orbits. L. 189, B. 141,
BB: 95)°H.'131, Biz: 122,-T.F. 119).U.F» 72, Intererh: 24/487@:
37 x 33, L.O. 36 x 33°5, N. 49 x 24.

This individual exhibits signs suggestive of some form of mummifi-
cation having been attempted. If so, it is the earliest authentic
evidence of such a practice. The skeleton was found completely
invested in a large series of bandages—more than sixteen layers still
intact, and probably at least as many more destroyed—ten layers of
fine bandage (warp seventeen and woof forty-eight threads to the
centimétre), then six layers somewhat coarser cloth, and next to the
body a series of badly corroded, very irregularly woven cloth, much
coarser (warp six and woof fourteen per centimétre) than the inter-
mediate and outer layers. Hach leg was wrapped separately, and
there was a large pad on the perineum. The bandages were broad
sheets of linen rather than the usual narrow bandages. The body was
flexed, as was usual at this period.

_In the wide interval between the bandages and the bones there
was a large mass of extremely corroded linen, whereas the intermediate

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 223

and superficial layers of cloth were quite well preserved and free from
corrosion, except along a line where the cloth was corroded to repre-
sent the rima pudendi—a fact of great interest when it is recalled
that in the Fifth and probably the Fourth Dynasties it was the custom
to fashion (in the case of male mummies) an artificial phallus.

The corrosion is presumptive evidence that some material (probably
crude natron) was applied to the surface of the body with a view to
its preservation. If so, this is the earliest body with unequivocal
evidence of an attempt artificially to preserve or prevent decomposition
in the soft tissues.

9262 N. (?) Woman aged twenty years of age. The teeth are
healthy and almost unworn. Cranial sutures all open, Small
infantile face of characteristic Proto-Egyptian type. Broad pentagonoid

Fig. 4.

cranium and flat orbits. L.185, B. 142, F.B.83, H. 136, Biz. 124,
T.F.105, U.F.63, Interorb. 215, R.O.389°5x30, L.0. 37x30,
N. 48x23.

2262 B.N. A small tormmb containing a man aged about forty years.
Teeth extremely worn; right lower molar carious; severe alveolar
abscesses in upper jaw; only a few stumps left. Typical Proto-
Egyptian pentagonoides, shading into ovoides. Low, very slightly
oblique orbits; narrow nose with high bridge, very sharp margin and
prominent spine. Semitic curve of nasal bones. Mandible with widely
splayed angles. The face as a whole, while Proto-Egyptian in type,
has a suggestion of the criminal Blemmye type in jaw, nose, and
orbits—? a Sinaitic Arab. Three lower incisors (two right and one
left removed), left zygomatic arch fractured, and rejoined with inward

924 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

bend: 11) 189; B:135, B.B?975, Ei 141, Baz? 130, "Ta 110s Wee aan,
C.B.105, F.B.93, Interorb. 23, R.O. 385x305, L.0. 39°5x31,
N. 50x23, P. 53x37, Big. 108, H.S. 28.

9962 J.N. A man of about twenty years of age. Basilar recently
closed. Teeth healthy and only slightly worn. Perfect Proto-
Egyptian type. Long ovoid, fairly broad. L. 183, B. 137°5, H. 135,
F. 89, U.F. 69, Biz. 120, N. 50x28, Interorb. 22, L.O. 36x29
(flat, horizontal, oblong), R.O. 38 x 30.

2196. This is a man whose coronal is beginning to close. Very
full broad ovoid; large squarish orbits; very narrow, long, high-bridged
nose; no jaw. L.188, B.137, H.145, F.91, U.F. 75, N. 55x23,
Biz. 130 (curved out), Interorb. 20, L.O. 87x33, R.O. 37°5 x 31°5.

2187. A woman of about twenty-five years, with teeth quite
healthy. Flattened beloid skull, with Proto-Egyptian jaw and hori-
zontal flattened orbits. Small Proto-Egyptian nose and_ slight
prognathism. L.171, B.140, H. 1382, F. 90, Interorb. 22, L.O.
37°5 x 29, R.O. 88x 29, N. 44x 23, Biz. 120, U.F. 62°5, T.F. 105.

2256 N. A man almost edentulous, seven stumps flush with gum.
Coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid closed. Big, well-filled ovoid head ;
oblique squarish orbits, and narrow prominent nose of alien type.
L. 186, B. 138, H. 134, F. 104, U.F. 73, Biz. 132 (well curved out),
Interorb. 24, L.O. 40x32, R.O. 87x33 (right occiput much more
prominent), N. 54x24.

2256 §. A child of thirteen or fourteen years, Flat beloid skull
175 x 133, H. 133. Small elliptical horizontal orbits. Very narrow,
sharp-edged, prominent nose.

2256 S. (2nd.) Child about seven years old. Long, narrow,
pentagonoid skull. L. 176, B. 127.

2191. Woman. Coronal and sagittal sutures beginning to elose.
Metopic suture present. Teeth moderately worn and perfectly healthy,
with slight tartar. Slender beloid skull. Fronto-nasal profile an
unbroken line, sharp-edged nose of type suggestive of Giza (that is,
from the necropolis of the Great Pyramids) aliens. L. 174, B. 180,
H. 124, U.F. 65, N. 48x 24, L.O. 39x31, F. 87:5, Interorb. 22.

No. ? A man aged fifty years; principal sutures closing, but teeth
only slightly worn and quite healthy. Large beloid skull, but face
of Proto-Egyptian type, with small pointed mandible. Nose probably of
bulbous type (like that of King Mycerinus, as displayed in his statues).
Ti, 189, B. 144, BP. 97, Hy 141, Biz. 129, TF. 73; Tnterqre26;
R.O. 40x32, L. 39 x 32, N. 50x 28, Femur R. 468, head 45.

No. ? Man with small, regular, well-worn, perfectly healthy
teeth. Temporal part of coronal suture closed. A somewhat
effeminate skull with typical small-featured Proto-Egyptian face, but
well-filled ovoid cranium. 4.179, B. 138, F. 96, H.137, Biz. 123,
T.F. 108, U.F. 70, Interorb: 25, R.O. 36°5x31, L.0. 36x30,
N. 49°5x24.

2307. A skeleton, probably female, obtained from a large mastaba,
but not certain. Coronal, lambdoid, and sagittal sutures closed. Well-
filled ovoid skull. LL. 185, B. 137, H. 126, F’. 100.

2311 B. A woman forty-five years of age. Large, well-filled,

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 225

broad ovoid, almost ellipsoid cranium. Face of Proto-Egyptian type;
moderately large, almost horizontal orbits; moderate nose; typical
pointed Proto-Egyptian jaw; low ramus, with small coronoid. Vertical
forehead, passing without interruption into line of nose. Femur R.
413, head 40. Femur small, with no pronounced features, slenderly
built. Diameter of head, 40 mm. UL.181, B. 137, F.93, H. 139,
Biz. 127, T.F.. 116, U.F. 73, C.B. 99, F.B. 92, Interorb. 24, R.O.
38 x 31, L.O. 40x31, N. 50x 24, Big. 84, Sym. 30, Sig. 47, Cir. 510.

2313 W. A man with healthy but well-worn teeth; left upper

Fic. 5.

incisor missing and a curiously regular bevelled V-shaped hole in its
place. Coronal and sagittal sutures closing. A big, high, ovoid cranium,
with very narrow, high-bridged, prominent, sharp-margined, promi-
nent-spined nose. Large squarish orbits; jaw with moderate ramus;
beard on chin; race certainly alien. L. 186, B. 143, F.92, H. 138,
Biz. 130, T.F.124, U.F.76, Interorb. 21, R.O. 40x34, L.O. 39x35,
N. 55x23.

2314 C. Man. Small pentagonoid skull of Proto-Egyptian type,
cranium greatly thickened (parietal, 11 mm.).

2315 N.E. A man’s skull, with coronal suture just beginning to
close. Ovoid head with prominent superciliary margin; a small,
narrow, sharp-margined, prominent-spined nose, otherwise typical
small-featured Proto-Egyptian. .180, B.139°5, F.90, H. 143,
Biz. 125, T.F. 119, U.F. 72, Interorb. 21°5, R.O. 39x31, L.O.
38 x 32, N. 50x25. Some tartar on the teeth, which are well worn.

1914. Q

226 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

An abscess, starting from the infection of the pulp cavity of the worn
left upper molars, has eroded large holes in palate and into maxillary
antrum.

2316. Probably a female about thirty-five years. Cranium is a
well-filled ovoid, with flattened occiput, with fairly broad, sloping
forehead. Moderately large squarish orbits, and small, narrow, and
not very prominent nose. ‘Teeth perfectly regular, and only very
slightly worn. Mandible with somewhat curved body, and a narrow
ramus, but not very high. In the temporal fossa there is a very marked
prominence in the postero-lateral corner of the frontal. On the left
side series of four lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum probably belonging
to this body ankylosed by severe inflammatory process, which also
affects the sacro-iliac joints, although there is no fusion of the bones
in these joints. L.174, B. 134, F.96, H. 130, Biz. 123, T.PI14,
U.F. 70, C.B. 97, F.B. 95, Interorb. 26, R.O. 40 x 33, L.O. 39°5 x 34,
N. 50x 24°5.

2323 C. Woman with temporal suture closing and parietal thin-
ning becoming apparent. Thick mass of tartar on teeth. Alveolar
abscesses around upper molars. Very small head with typical Proto-
Egyptian face, but rather well-filled ovoid cranium. lL. 167, B. 129,
F. 86, H. 129°5, Biz. 115, T.F. 105, U.F. 65, Interorb. 20, R.O.
35 x 30, L.O. 35 x 30, N. 49 x 23.

2338. Probably a man with very effeminate skull. The femur
suggests masculine sex. Coronal suture closing. Large tartar deposits
on the teeth; alveolar abscesses at the two lower molars on both sides.
Typical Proto-Egyptian pentagonoid skull; large square orbits, but
otherwise characteristic Proto-Egyptian face with suggestion of negroid
influence. Very slender humeri, the right coronoid fossa perforated,
anterior lamella only of left gone. Femur R. 443, head 44, L. 184,
B. 132, P..91, 2134, Biz. 123, T.F. 118, U.P. 69°5, 0.B. 95, FB, 93,
Interorb. 24, R.O. 39x36, L.O. 39x36, N. 50X23°5.

2344 A. Woman about forty years of age. Typical Predynastic
narrow pentagonoid skull. Orbits were small, horizontal, and ellipti-
cal. Mandible was missing. Long and very slender femur with no
outstanding peculiarities. Diameter of head 388. Femur R. 440,
oblique. L. 175, B. 181, F. 83, H. 135, Biz. 120, U.F. 69, Interorb. 24,
R.O. 385X315, L.0. 85x31°5, N. 40x24.

2347 C. A woman’s cranium of Proto-Egyptian type, with sutures
open. Facial skeleton missing. L. 180, B. 184, H. 131, F. 91.

2358. A woman with perfectly healthy, only slightly worn teeth.
Temporal part of coronal suture closing. Perfect ovoid skull, with
sloping forehead and uninterrupted line of forehead and _ nose.
Rounded orbits and sharp-edged narrow nose of somewhat alien
appearance. L. 180, H. 135, B. 137°5, F. 89, U.F. 67, Biz. 120,
N. 49 x 23, Interorb. 20, L.O. 37x33, R.O. 38x33.

Skull found on stair north of 2376. Man. ‘Teeth healthy and
only slightly worn. Cranial sutures all open. Flattened beloid skull,
with sloping forehead; jaw with broad chin and moderate ramus.
Femur R. 445, head 42. ‘Tibia curved and platyenemic. L. 182,
B, 140, F. 97, H. 180.

ON PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 227

9416. A man with coronal suture beginning to close and sagittal
half-closed. Big broad pentagonoid skull, the face being Dynastic-
Egyptian in type, with Proto-Egyptian jaw. Three lower incisors
removed at some time. L. 187, B. 141, F. 99, H. 139, T.F. 120,
U.F. 74, Biz. 187 (established), Interorb. 27, R.O, 38x31, L.O.
smashed, N. 52x20.

9433. Sex uncertain. Temporal part of coronal suture closed.
Mandible healthy and well worn. Left upper first molar and first
premolar alveolar abscesses due to infection through the pulp cavities
exposed by the wearing down of the teeth. Large abscess destroyed
alveolus from second lower right molar to the premolars (inclusive).
Small well-filled ovoid cranium. The nose has a somewhat flattened
bridge, the jaw being rather a pronounced feature, typically Lower
Meypuan, by. 171, B. 1382) F.90, H. 1315, Biz. 128, T.F. 106;
U.F. 67, C.B. 98, F.B. 94, Interorb. 22, R.O. 39x 33, L.O. 37x31,
N. 50X23 (moderately large orbits, not very oblique), Big. 86,
Sym. 27, Sig. 52 (moderate outward curve of zygomatic processes).

The Significance of these Data.

In discussing the facts thus set forth I cannot refrain from
expressing regret that it was not possible to examine each skeleton
im situ in the tomb. For in removing human remains from tombs,
not only does the material suffer considerable damage, but a great
deal of the most valuable kind of evidence is destroyed. In this
particular instance the loss of this opportunity is particularly regretted,
because I feel sure important facts bearing upon the early practice of
mummification might have been recovered.

In making these remarks I am not unmindful of the fact that
Mr. Quibell removed the material from the tombs into his workroom
with the object of facilitating my work and enabling me to do as
much as possible in the limited time which I was able to spend upon
this work at Saqqara.

Apart from supplying what is perhaps the earliest evidence of
attempts ab mummification (see the account of No. 2262 above), this
group of remains has also provided the earliest known instances of
symmetrical thinning of the parietal bones not due to senile changes.
That this parietal atrophy was not due to old age is quite certain,
because the best-marked case occurred in the skull of a young woman
(No. 2323 C) who could not have been much more than thirty years
of age. This is interesting in view of the fact that such parietal
thinning has not hitherto been known to occur at so early a period,
although it became exceedingly common in the Pyramid Age, two
Dynasties later. Its causation seems to be associated with the habit
of constantly wearing heavy wigs, which by pressure affect the
blood supply of the parietal bones.®

Another interesting feature of the material discussed in this report
is the rarity of dental caries, which became so common and wrought
such appalling havoc in the successors of these people of Memphis a

® Blliot Smith, ‘The Causation of the Symmetrical Thinning of the

Parietal Bones in Ancient Egyptians,’ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,
vol. xli., 1907.

Q 2

228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

few years later during the Pyramid Age. Alveolar abscesses are
common enough, but they are not, as a rule, the result of dental
caries, as I have explained above.

The contrast presented by this collection of human remains to
those of the Proto-Egyptian population of the Predynastic period is
so profound, and the alien features so widely diffused amongst them,
that a fundamental problem is raised for discussion. This question is
so large that I propose specially to consider its bearings in a separate
communication to the Association.

The intimate blending of this Egyptian population with a people
of foreign type and origin at so early a period as the Second and Third
Dynasties points to the fact that we have to deal, not with a recent
admixture, but one which must have been taking place for many
generations before the time of the Second Dynasty. But we have no
evidence to indicate whether the Western Asiatic element—for there
can be no doubt as to the nature of the alien strain—had been percolat-
ing into the Delta gradually, or came more suddenly in larger volume
possibly as a people already mixed to some extent with Egyptian blood
in Syria or elsewhere.

The important result emerges from such considerations that the
people who developed the wonderful and precocious civilisation of
Egypt were not pure Proto-Egyptians. The growth of early Egyptian
civilisation no doubt represents the gradual evolution of the ideas and
the arts and crafts which we know to have had their origin among the
Predynastic people of Upper Egypt; but their full fruition came only
when the contact of peoples of diverse origin in Lower Egypt brought
the influence of new: ideas and new manners of thought—probably
also a more virile type of intellect—to stimulate and help in the
development of the Egyptian civilisation.

B. The Human Remains of the Hyksos Period found in the Southern
Part of the Kerma Basin (Sudan).

At the end of 1913 I received from Professor George A. Reisner,
who, working on behalf of Harvard University and the Boston
Museum, had excavated a site at the south of the Kerma Basin, in
the Dongola Province, a series of skeletons of the Hyksos Period.
These bones were sent to me for examination, with the consent of the
Archeological Committee of the Sudan Government and the approval
of the Governor-General, Sir Reginald Wingate, whose interest in the
anthropology of the Sudan is well known.

As only a part of the material has yet been sent to me, and as
Dr. Reisner has not yet communicated the details of the archeological
evidence, it would perhaps be preferable if I withhold my report until
next year.

I may say that the tombs of the wealthier people contained the
remains of typical Egyptians, such as we know to have lived in the
Thebaid during the times of the New Empire; while the other tombs
contained skeletons of Proto-Egyptian and Middle Nubian (C group)
types. Although slight negroid traits are common, there is a sur-
prising absence of the more obtrusive negro features.

ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS IN LOCHS OF HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND. 229

Artificial Islands in the Lochs of the Highlands of Scotland.—
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Boyp
Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. A. J. B. Wace (Secretary), and
Professors T. H. Bryce, J. L. Myres, and W. RipcEway.

Since, owing to the meeting of the Association in Australia this year,
reports have to be sent in at a much earlier date than usual, the Com-
mittee have so far little to record. The Rey. F. O. Blundell, the Com-
mittee’s correspondent at Fort Augustus, continues to collect and
tabulate information. He desires to thank the Committee for their
assistance and for their encouragement in his investigations of a subject
which, though full of interest, presents many difficulties that can
scarcely be realised by those who have not taken part in the work.

By the courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, fifty
reprints of the paper read before that Society, containing numerous
illustrations, have been circulated amongst the correspondents of this
Committee, and this has again stimulated interest in the subject. The
Paper, which was compiled largely from the replies to the British
Association inquiry, was printed in full in the ‘ Transactions’ of the
Society, and elicited numerous letters of congratulation on the results
obtained by the Association. Mr. Gilbert Goudie, F.S.A.Scot., writes
amongst others: —‘ May I be allowed to add that I have been much
impressed by your paper on Artificial Islands in the ‘‘ Proceedings of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland’’? These I had previously
regarded as entirely exceptional and rare, but the numerous instances
you adduce go far to show that they were almost the normal idea—
quite a new conception which will influence me largely in looking at
these things in future.’

One of the main objects of the Committee is to secure a suitable
site for excavation. The artificial island in Loch Kinellan was pro-
visionally fixed upon last year for excavation this year. Now Mr. F.C.
Diack of Aberdeen has sent photographs and particulars of the ‘ Island ’
in the Loch of Leys, Banchory. The loch is now completely dry, and
therefore this island is a much more suitable site for excavation than
that in Loch Kinellan. The Secretary proposes to visit the site with
the Rev. F. O. Blundell in July, and hopes to receive the permission
of the proprietor, Sir Thomas Burnett, Bart., of Crathes, for the pro-
posed excavation. It is hoped that the funds at the disposal of the
Committee, together with a grant made by the Carnegie Trust to Dr.
R. Munro for the excavation of the island in Loch Kinellan, will be
sufficient for a preliminary excavation.

The Committee desires to be reappointed and that a grant of 51.
should be applied for at the next meeting of the British Association.

It will be necessary for a new Secretary to be appointed—Professor
Tl. H. Bryce is suggested.

230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Lxploration of the Paleolithic Site known as La Cotte de St.
Brelade, Jersey, during 1914.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. R. Marerr (Chairman), Dr. A. Kerra, Dr.
C. AnpREws, Dr. A. Dunuop, Mr. G. pz Grucuy, Col. R.
GARDNER WARTON (Secretary), appointed to excavate a Palao-
lithic Site in Jersey.

Scheme of Operations.

Tur Committee arranged with Mr. Ernest Daghorn, who had for the
three previous years carried out the excavation of this site with signal
success, that for the sum of 501. (being the full grant authorised by
the British Association) he should supply throughout the months of
March and April 1914, viz., for forty-eight working days, the services
of three experienced quarrymen, while himself superintending their
labours; that he should bear the responsibility for all accidents;
and that he should furnish whatever tools or other appliances might
be required for the work. The Committee has to thank Mr. Daghorn
for having amply fulfilled all that was expected of him. The men
worked with a will, and great intelligence was displayed in the
execution of orders.

Attention was exclusively directed to the main cave, already
partially excavated by the Société Jersiaise in 1911 and 1912. Mean-
while it was hoped that it might be found to extend round the back
of the ravine, up to now masked by talus, and so to be continuous
with the smaller cave opposite, which Messrs. Marett and de Gruchy
uncovered in 1913. Hitherto exploration of the main cave had been
confined to the outer or western side, where the roof ig somewhat
lower and the pile of superincumbent débris consequently less. As
the side contiguous with the back of the ravine is approached, the
mass overlying the paleolithic floor and reaching up to the roof passes
from about twenty-five to some forty feet of thickness; so that for
every square foot of floor to be cleared an amount of material weighing
approximately a ton has to be removed. It was now decided to tackle
this heavier part of the task and, as far as might be possible in the
time, to carry the clearing right across the mouth of the cave to
whatever might prove to be its inner or eastern limit.

For the first three weeks the attack concentrated on the upper
portions of the cave-filling, the extreme top being demolished by a
successful piece of blasting which brought down some eighty tons.
The ultimate aim being to open up the floor outwards from a line
running parallel to the mouth about eighteen feet from it, it was
necessary to cut back the higher portions of the detritus to the extent
of another ten or twelve feet, so as to provide some sort of slope, and
thus minimise the result of sudden downfalls. This was done without
revealing either the true back of the cave or the supposed chimney
through which the clay and rock-rubbish, other than what is due to
roof-collapse, must have descended. It may be noted, however, that
a tentative excavation on the further or northern side of the cliff into

ON PALAOLITHIC EXPLORATION IN JERSEY. 231

which the cave penetrates brought to light a considerable fissure,
about twenty feet higher than the level of what is to be seen of the
cave-roof; and this may very well turn out to be the upper end of this
hypothetical! funnel. For the rest, these topmost parts of the cave-
filling proved to be absolutely sterile, with the single curious exception
that right at the back of the cave, some thirty-five feet above the floor,
a piece of bone was noticed to jut out’ When this was with some
difficulty rescued from its rather inaccessible position, it was found
to have all the appearance of extreme antiquity, and is probably
assignable to Bos. Presumably, therefore, it is contemporary with
the cave-filling, and came down therewith from above.

It was calculated that it would be just possible with two months’
work to carry a clearing about eighteen feet broad right across the
mouth of the cave to its eastern side-wall, since its upper and visible
portion, distant about thirty feet from the opposite side-wall, showed
a perpendicular drop which might be presumed to extend indefinitely
downwards. On April 8, however, it was discovered that this wall,
along the whole breadth of the eighteen feet in process of clearance,
was undercut, at a point about sixteen feet above floor-level, by a
further cavity. To judge by the narrow section opened up, there is
not less than twelve feet of additional penetration to be reckoned with
on this side. Shielded as it is by its lower roof, this annexe would
appear to be at once remarkably dry and free from shattering falls of
rock. Thus it offers conditions more favourable to the preservation
of bone than the high-domed cave on which it borders, and would be
an ideal place in which to come upon human remains. This discovery
led to a modification of the original plan, the breadth of the clearing
being reduced to about ten feet, so as, consistently with thorough
exploration of the portion of floor uncovered, to stretch forth a
‘feeler’ in this tempting direction. Nothing short of a fresh bout
of excavation, however, supported by a grant no less substantial than
the last, will enable the Committee to cope with this unexpected
lateral extension of the main cave; not to speak of the rearward parts
of the cavern which are likely to prove more or less prolific also.

In proceeding towards the eastern wall it was at first impossible to
note any stratification in the gradually thickening floor owing to the
large blocks distributed through it. At about twenty feet, as measured
from the western side, there was, for the first time, clear evidence of
some sort of stratification. For three feet above floor level there was
a bed of thick ashes of a deep black colour. Above for about one
foot succeeded an almost completely sterile layer. Then, for another
two feet, occurred frequent implements in a layer of brownish clay,
interspersed with slight traces of a darker matter. It was at first
thought that the implements of the lower layer were rougher, and
that, in particular, the typical Mousterian ‘ point’ was absent. Sub-
sequent observation, however, controlled by careful segregation of the
finds from each layer, failed to bear out this view, some of the
finest points (one of them, however, being worked on both sides, and
in this way suggesting an older style of manufacture) being found in
the lower bed. Of course a more detailed examination of the products

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914,

of the different layers may establish some sort of sequence in their
forms. When the recess on the eastern side was reached the height
of the implementiferous soil amounted to as much as twelve feet above
the point taken to represent floor-level. At the very top of this bed
were found three mammoth teeth and a large number of well-made
implements. It is even possible to distinguish these highest portions
as a third stratum, since in one place the top of the layer immediately
above the sterile bed already mentioned was marked for about six feet
by a thin line of almost pure sand. This sand was not such as might
result from disintegration of the local rock, and its occurrence almost
suggested that the inhabitants of the cave must at one time have
indulged in the luxury of a sanded floor. This line of sand stood at
about six feet above floor-level.

Osteological Remains.

At least 5,000 portions of bone, mostly very fragmentary, were
discovered. It has been found possible only to submit these to the
roughest preliminary examination. Dr. Andrews reports as follows
on the selection of bones submitted to him at the British Museum :—

Hyena Crocuta, var. Spelea.—Portions of premolar teeth.

Canis Vulpes.—Maxilla.

Cervus Megaceros (Irish Elk)—Unworn upper molar, fragment
of mandible with molars.

Cervus Hlaphus (Red Deer).—Portions of jaw, with teeth.

Rangifer tarandus (Reindeer).—Numerous teeth, bones, and pieces
of antler.

? Capreolus Caprea (Roe deer).—A tooth.

Goat or Sheep.—A tooth.

Bos primigenius.—Fragments of bones and teeth.

Equus.—Numerous teeth of a horse. The teeth are large, but it
does not follow that the horse was.

Elephas primigenius (Mammoth).—Portions of a thin plated tooth.

Myodes torquatus (Arctic lemming).—Numerous lower jaws and
bones.

A metatarsus of some species of Grouse.

This brings up the list of species (exclusive of varieties as in the
case of Hquide and Bovide) from six to thirteen, Rhinoceros ticho-
rhinus having been found on previous occasions, and yields what may
be described as a thoroughly representative Pleistocene fauna of the
cold, or tundra, type.

Artefacts.

The amount of worked flint unearthed in the course of the recent
excavation proved simply immense, over 3 cwt. of implements and
chips (including hammer stones) having been extracted. It must be
remembered that flint is not found in situ in the Channel Islands, so
that it is perfectly certzin that all flint found in the cave has been
brought there by man. It is impossible briefly to convey an impres-
sion of the full extent of the material awaiting detailed study. This
site will assuredly bear comparison with any other Mousterian site as

ON PALMOLITHIC EXPLORATION IN JERSEY. 233

a source of a representative series of types. Very symmetrical ° points ’
adorned with the finest secondary chipping occurred to the number of
several dozen. The largest measured 130x88 mm. Curiously
enough, a small piece broken from the side of this specimen was
recovered at a spot distant several yards away, though at the same
level, the patina proving that the fracture was ancient. Some of the
‘points’ were of the graceful elongated type that has been termed
‘hemi-Solutrian.’ The most characteristic of these measured
97x53 mm. It is to be noted that the implement from the lowest
layer worked on both sides was of this shape, measuring 110 x 52 mm.
It is made of a piece of flint of a ‘ knotty ’ kind which may well have
invited additional trimming. Several cases of double patination occur,
the most noticeable being that of a well-formed ‘ point’ measuring
70x 50 mm., which, having first been blocked out in true Mousterian
style, has afterwards had time to acquire a white patina (very similar
to that characteristic of the Neolithic in Jersey, and thus possibly
standing for some 5,000 years), and has been subsequently subjected
to elaborate re-chipping along the edges. A ‘point’ beautifully
worked in jasper, but, unfortunately, broken at the base, is something
of a curiosity. For the rest, every known type of scraper abounds.
Special notice may be taken of a frequent type in which the core has
been utilised as a handle. A certain number of small pieces, the best
examples measuring 50 x 22, 35 x 22, and 30x20 mm., bear a strong
resemblance to arrow-heads, the more so as they have notched bases ;
though to ascribe the bow to Mousterian times may be somewhat
unorthodox. One specimen, again, is of that ‘ rostrocarinate ’ type of
which so much has lately been heard. Apart from the worked flint,
there is a very interesting series of utilised pebbles, every variety of
hammer stone being found. It seems to have been customary with
the inhabitants of this cave to split pebbles, especially those formed
of diakase, and to use the longitudinal sections as scrapers or
polissoirs. By good fortune it was possible to re-constitute such a
pebble out of three portions found in different parts of the lowest bed,
at some distance from each other. Occasionally pieces of stone other
than flint had been trimmed into the rough semblance of ‘ points,’
the best example being of the hard sandstone (grés Armoricain) found
in Alderney. A very interesting series has been provisionally con-
structed of granite implements. These occurred in the heart of the
bed of ashes, side by side with flint implements of similar form, under
such conditions as almost certainly to exclude the possibility of their
being accidental splinters from the roof. Certain bone fragments
showed clearly the signs of having been cut with a flint knife, and it
is possible that they will have to be ranked as implements, one of
them, for instance, whether by accident or design, making a very
convenient spatula. It only remains to add that everything that can
possibly be of human workmanship, including all the inevitable
débitage d’atelier, has been carefully preserved and stored by the
kindness of the Société Jersiaise in a special room, where the student
can work over the whole material at his leisure. with every chance of
constructing a truly classical series.

234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Acknowledgments.

The Chairman, Dr. R. R. Marett, directed operations from
March 21 to April 22, inclusive, the Secretary, Colonel Warton,
assuming responsibility for the rest of the time. Nine members of
the Oxford University Anthropological Society, including Dr. F. C. S.
Schiller and Mr. W. McDougall, F.R.S., took an active part in the
work, while there were also many local helpers, most of them
inembers of the Société Jersiaise. Special thanks are due to Mrs.
Briard for the use of her car and for her personal assistance in the
important matter of transport; to Mrs. Coltart and Miss Bayly for
their help both in finding and in dealing with the finds; to Mr. G. de
Gruchy, the proprietor of the site, who helped in the actual work
of excavation for about a fortnight; to Captain A. H. Coltart (Exeter
College), who actively superintended the work during its final stages,
and took a leading part in arranging the material at the Museum; to
Mr. B. de Chrustchoff (Lincoln College), who for a month inhabited
a small cabin upon the site itself, and acted as custodian of the
treasure; to Mr. T. B. Kiitredge (Exeter College), who was constantly
at work for a month, and afforded great assistance in every way;
to Mr. Emile Guiton, of the Société Jersiaise, who acted as photo-
grapher-in-chief; to Mr. Joseph Sinel, curator of the Museum of the
Société Jersiaise, who took efficient steps to secure the preservation of
the osteological remains; and last, but not least, to Dr. Smith Wood-
ward and Dr. Andrews, of the British Museum, for the determination
of the fauna represented by these remains.

Future Policy.

The Committee wishes to apply to the British Association for a
grant of not less than the sum previously given, in order that the
work may be continued without delay. It is well-nigh a certainty
that a rich store of remains awaits excavation, and, indeed, that it lies
exceedingly near to hand, more especially along the eastern side,
where the hearth deposits are particularly rich. Any such grant will
be devoted entirely to the work of removing the débris. All incidental
expenses will be met by local contributions, as in the present case.

The Production of Certified Copies of Hausa Manuscripts.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. K. S. HARTLAND
(Chairman), Professor J. lL. Myres (Secretary), Mr. W.
CROOKE, and Major A. J. N. TREMEARNE.

Tue sum of 20/]., placed at the disposal of the Committee in 1912,
has been expended in payment of the printer.

Copies have been presented as follows: To the Committee for
Anthropology, Oxford; the Syndicate for Anthropology, Cambridge;
the Imperial Institute; the London School of Economics; 1’Ecole
d’Anthropologie, Paris; the University Library, Berlin; the India
Office Library; Exeter College, Oxford; Christ’s College, Cambridge;
King’s College, London; and to various missionary and other religious

ON THE PRODUCTION OF CERTIFIED COPIES OF HAUSA MSS. 235

societies where texts in Hausa will be accessible and useful to students.
The usual copies have also been deposited in pursuance of the Copy-
right Acts. ‘There remain three copies in hand which the Committee
hope to distribute in a similar way shortly.

The Prehistoric Civilisation of the Western Mediterranean.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. R1nGE-
way (Chairman), Dr. T. AsHBy (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H.
DuckwortH, Mr. D. G. Hocarru, Sir A. J. Evans, and
Professor J. LL. Myres, appointed to report on the present
state of knowledge of the Prehistoric Civilisation of the
Western Mediterranean with a view to future research.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Our knowledge on this subject has made considerable progress in
recent years, though one of the main hypotheses—that of the advance
of the so-called ‘ Mediterranean’ race (to which several scholars
attribute the megalithic civilisation of the end of the Neolithic and
the dawn of the Bronze Age) from North Africa—has yet to be tested
by further research in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which we may hope
that Italian archeologists will shortly be able to undertake. In the
meantime, the megalithic remains of Malta have been studied to
some extent by the British School at Rome, though more work might
be profitably undertaken there; a considerable number of dolmens are
now known in Sardinia; and a new group of them has recently been
found in the neighbourhood of Bari, in the south-east of Italy.

It would be important to study the intermediate links in the chain,
which seems to connect the megalithic civilisation of the Western
Mediterranean with that of our own islands: and the dolmens of
Spain and Portugal might with some profit be further examined.

The Teaching of Anthropology.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir RicHaRD TEMPLE (Chairman), Dr. A. C. HADDON
(Secretary), Sir E. F. im Taurn, Mr. W. Crooxe, Dr. C. G.
SELIGMANN, Professor G. Exuiot SmirH, Dr. R. R. MAReEtTT,
Professor P. E. Newperry, Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Professors T. H.
Bryce, P. THompson, R. W. Rep, H. J. Fururs, and J. L.
Myres, and Sir B. C. A. WINDLE, appointed to investigate
the above subject.

Tue President of Section H, Sir Richard Temple, initiated a discus-
sion at the Birmingham Meeting on the practical application of
anthropological teaching in Universities. A report of this discussion
was printed in Man, 1918, No. 102, giving the President’s opening
statement, extracts from letters from distinguished administrators and
ethnologists, and an abstract of the speeches made by Sir Everard im

236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Lieut.-Colonel Gurdon, Dr. Haddon, Dr.
Marett, and Professor P. Thompson.

A Committee was appointed by the British Association for the
purpose of devising practical measures for the organisation of anthro-
pological teaching at the Universities in the British Islands. With
this committee was associated a. committee appointed by the Council
of the Royal Anthropological Institute. These committees met in
joint session at the Institute, under the chairmanship of Sir Richard
Temple, and passed the following resolutions: ‘ (a) It is necessary to
organise the systematic teaching of Anthropology to persons either
about to proceed to, or actually working in, those parts of the British
Empire which contain populations alien to the British people. (b) The
organisation can best be dealt with by the collaboration of the Royal
Anthropological Institute, the British Association, and the Universi-
ties, with the support and co-operation of the Government, the Foreign
Office, the India Office, the Colonial Office, and the Civil Service
Commissioners. (c) It would be well for the organisation to take the
form of encouraging the existing Schools of Anthropology at the
Universities and the formation of such schools where none exist.
(d) As laboratories, a library, and a museum, readily available for
teaching students, are indispensable adjuncts to each school, it is
desirable to encourage their formation where they are not already in
existence.’

By the courtesy of the Master and Wardens of the Worshipful
Company of Drapers of the City of London, a conference to consider
the findings and recommendations of the Joint Committee was held in
the Hall of that Company on February 19, 1914. The President of
the Conference was the Right Hon. the Earl of Selborne. A large
number of representatives of various Home and Colonial Government
Departments, Universities, Societies, as well as politicians, adminis-
trators, and others, were present or sent letters of regret at their
inability to be present at the Conference, and expressing their sym-
pathy with the purpose of the Conference. A full report of this
Conference will be found in Man, 1914, No. 35.

In November 1913 Sir Richard Temple addressed the Indian
Civil Service students at Exeter College, Oxford. In February 1914
he published a pamphlet entitled ‘ Anthropology a Practical Science,’
which included his Birmingham Address (1913), an Address delivered
in Cambridge in 1904, and extracts from that given at Oxford (1913).
In March he addressed the American Luncheon Club, and also the
Sphinx Club, both mercantile institutions, on Anthropology in its
‘business’ aspects. And he has engaged to do the same at the
Merchants’ Luncheon Club at Hull.

It has not yet been possible to place the findings of the Conference
before the Prime Minister, whose time has been, and is still, taken up
with urgent matters of State. An endeavour to secure an audience
with the Prime Minister will be made when an opportune moment
arrives.

ON THE DUCTLESS GLANDS. 237

The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor Sir EDWARD ScH.AFER (Chairman), Professor SWALE
VINCENT (Secretary), Professor A. B. MAcattum, Dr. L. E.
SHorE, and Mrs. W. H. THompson. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

Mr. A. T. Cameron has continued his investigations on the presence
and function of iodine in different tissues. Examination of the thyroids
of the elasmobranchs Scylliwm canicula and Raia clavata gave positive
results, those for female Scyllium thyroids (116 per cent.) being
higher than any previously reported.1| Examination of the thyroids of
the dog-fish Acanthias vulgaris, of the frog, of the alligator, and of
the pigeon gave positive results, the variations found being traceable
to variations in diet. Comparison of the iodine content of thyroid and
parathyroid tissue in the dog gave such marked differences as to
warrant the assumption that the parathyroid is not concerned with the
production of iodine compounds, and, therefore, as far as these are
concerned, that there is a differentiation of function between the two
glands.

A wider investigation has shown, in comparison with data previously
published by others, that iodine is an almost invariable constituent
of all organisms, plant and animal, the amount depending on the diet
and medium of the organism. With higher development there is greater
specificity of the tissue concerned in storing iodine, until in the
vertebrates no tissue except thyroid contains appreciable quantities.
Thymus especially has been examined in a large number of species,
with negative results. All normal thyroids contain iodine, the amount
varying with the diet, and between the limits 0°01 and 1°1 per cent.
(dry tissue). Other observers have shown previously that sponges and
corals (besides many algze) contain quantities of iodine comparable with
that in the thyroid. Three other types of tissue have been found in
marine organisms which contain amounts of iodine over 0'1 per cent.
(dry tissue) viz.: the horny tubes of Eunicid worms, the external
cutaneous tissues of the ‘ foot’ of the horse-clam, and the test of a
tunicate. Further work will be carried out to determine the type of
iodine compound in these tissues, with a view to throwing further light
upon the type of iodine compound in the thyroid. The above results
are in course of publication.

Mr. Cameron is also engaged in work on the effects of feeding iodine
compounds (and thyroid) on the amount of iodine present in the thyroid
gland, with a view to determine the rate of increase or diminution.
These results are not yet ready for publication.

The Secretary has been engaged upon various problems connected .
with the ductless glands. The effects of varying conditions upon the
histological structure of the thyroid and parathyroid have been investi-
gated in a preliminary fashion, but the results are conflicting and
difficult to interpret. The variations in structure in normal thyroids

1 Biochem. J., 2, 466, 1913. 2 J. Biol. Chem., 16, 465, 1914.

238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

are so great that the effects of feeding, drugs, &c., cannot be sum-
marised in a definite manner.®

The pharmacodynamics of different extracts have also been studied.
Among other facts to which attention will be called in subsequent
publications it may be mentioned that large doses of adrenin by no
means always interfere with the normal action of the vagus, that the
rise of blood-pressure due to injection of adrenin is of a double nature,
and that comparatively small doses of the last-mentioned drug
frequently cause an unexpected fatal result in dogs.

The effects of adrenin and thyroid extracts upon the activity of the
vagus have led to an inquiry as to the effect of hormones upon
vaso-motor reflexes, and owing to the unsatisfactory accounts given
in the majority of books as to the actual facts in connection with these
reflexes, it has been necessary to extend the inquiry so as to include
a consideration of the vaso-motor reflexes in general. So far, the only
hormone which appears to give any interesting results is the extract of
pituitary, the effect of injection of the extract being to change the nature
of the reflex, so that in cases where, for example, stimulation of the
central end of the sciatic produces a fall of blood-pressure, after
injection of pituitary extract a similar stimulation produces a rise.

This work is nearly ready for publication.

The Committee desire to be reappointed with a grant of 401.

Calorimetric Observations on Man.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. S. Macponaup (Chairman), Dr.
F. A. DuFrietp (Secretary), and Dr. KrtrH Lucas, appointed
to make Calorimetric Observations on Man in Health and in
Febrile Conditions. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

In furnishing a report upon the calorimetric work undertaken during
the past year, it is necessary to refer to a paper published by Professor
Macdonald and printed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’
B, vol. 87, 1913, and to a communication to the Physiological Society,
May 1914. The commencement of the first paper, containing a de-
scription of the apparatus and of the method of procedure followed
in these experiments, may be omitted here, since these have been in-
cluded in previous reports of this Committee. The latter part, which
1s the collected and digested results of a very large number of experi-
ments made upon a variety of individuals, forms a large part of this
report.

The experiments all through have been carried out by Professor
Macdonald with the apparatus and in the manner already described
by himself in the earlier reports. The subject, shut up within the
calorimeter, was made to perform a definite measured amount of
mechanical work upon the cycle. The degree of work was varied in
different experiments, and from the data of these heat-production

* See discussion, Zancet, 1914 (March and April), by Bell, McGarrison,
Chalmers, Watson, and Vincent.

ON CALORIMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON MAN. 239

figures have been obtained which fall into four groups corresponding
to the grades of mechanical work done. It has been found that these
results may be expressed by a constant multiplied by a function of
the subject’s weight, which varies with the amount of mechanical
work performed in the different groups, i.e. 02, ‘03, ‘O7 and ‘09 h.-p.

Group A—Heat-production = K,W*"

” B— ” — K,W**
» O— 4 SSK WwW
” D— ” — K,

From these results it is evident that the weight becomes less and
less of a handicap as the mechanical work increases. And, to carry
this a stage further, the query arises as to the likelihood of the weight
Ecoming a positive advantage at a still higher grade of mechanical
work.

The communication to the Physiological Society contains a formula
for one of the subjects cycling at a revolution rate varying from 40
to 98 revolutions per minute, and performing external work against a
brake varying in different experiments from 0 to 73 calories per hour—

4gVuai + 568

The first part of the formula represents the heat-production associated
with the rate of movement ‘ V,’ and is the same no matter what the
value of the external work performed by the movement. The second
is the ‘ coefficient of efficiency ’ multiplied by the external work done,
and fully represents the heat-production associated with the perform-
ance of external work. It will be noticed that this coefficient of
efficiency is represented as varying inversely with the two-thirds
power of the subject’s weight, and that the ‘ efficiency ’ which is its
reciprocal therefore varies directly with this value. This has been
found universally the case in the data from all the remaining subjects,
and explains the fact that in the heavier work experiments the results
become independent of the subject’s weight, if consideration is paid
to the other fact, also elicited from these data, that the heat-production
associated with movements per se (irrespective of the mechanical work
performed by them) varies, on the other hand, directly with the function
of the weight. In fact the total energy transformation is the sum
of the two factors, one due to the subject’s movements per se varying
directly, the other due to performance of mechanical work in the
course of these movements varying inversely as the subject’s weight ;
but in neither case in a simple linear fashion. The general formula
given (Proc. Physio. Soc., March 1914), is

x work in Kals. per hour = Kals. per hour.

» 566.8
s7WV ER +i x work,

The first fraction is probably expressible in the following form—

KWV?? where ‘v’ is the natural rate due to the ‘ pendular
character’ of the limb movements, and V is the particular rate
imposed in each experiment.

240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

Professor Macdonald also finds analogies between these results and
those of walking experiments described by Douglas and Haldane in
‘Phil. Trans.’ B, ciil., p. 245. A full consideration of the matter will
be found in a paper communicated, June 1914, to the ‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ on the ‘ Mechanical Efficiency of Man.’

The section of the work dealing with the respiratory changes has
also been continued during the past year. A number of experiments
have been performed in which the respiratory interchange of a man,
doing a measured amount of mechanical work upon a cycle in the
calorimeter, has been investigated. The calorimeter is ventilated by
means of a stream of air drawn through it at a uniform rate by a
pump and measured by a meter placed on the distal side of the latter.
All three are connected by tubing, through which the air flows, and
the air as it leaves is sampled by suitable means every ten minutes.
The samples thus obtained are examined by the gas-analysis apparatus
devised by Dr. Haldane, and the carbon dioxide and oxygen percentage
determined. ‘The carbon dioxide figures, when plotted against the time
on squared paper, take the form of a curve rising steadily to a horizontal
asymptote.

In order to understand the figures thus obtained it was obviously
necessary to inquire into the question of storage of gases within the
calorimeter, and to do this a number of calibration experiments (17 in
all) were made, in which a stream of carbon dioxide, measured by a
gas-meter and generated by a modification of the apparatus described
in a paper by Young and Caudwell (‘ Soc. Chem. Ind.,’ March 1907),
was passed into the calorimeter at a uniform rate, and the ten minutes’
samples examined in the manner described in the experiments on the
human subject. Attempts were then made to discover the relation
which exists between the curve of the carbon dioxide in the leaving air
and that of the carbon dioxide introduced from the generating appara-
tus; but so far the results appear so complicated that no definite relation
has been arrived at. However, quite recently Mr. G. H. Livens, M.A.,
Lecturer on Mathematics to the University, has rendered most valuable
assistance towards solving this problem. A fairly accurate empirical
formula has been obtained from the actual readings, but it is not of
such good agreement with the theoretical formula as is desired, and
further experiments are being made to detect the cause of the dis-
crepancy.

Owing to the appearance of a considerable error in the readings of
the large meter used for measuring the volume of the air-flow through
the calorimeter, it became necessary to replace it by a water-meter
supplied by Messrs. Parkinson and Cowan, Ltd. Also, a large number
of tests were made, both in the Physiological Laboratory and through
the courtesy of the Sheffield Gas Company at their test-room, on the
small meter which is used for measuring the volume of carbon dioxide
introduced into the calorimeter in the calibration experiments men-
tioned above. I am now certain that the error in our estimation
on these accounts 1s well under 2 per cent.

ON EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE ON COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS. 241

The Lffect of Low Temperature on Cold-blooded Animals.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SWALE
ViNcENT (Chairman) and Mr. A. T. CAMERON (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Mr. A. T. Camexron has continued the experiments of Cameron and
Brownlee on frogs communicated in the last report, and has arrived at
the following conclusions :—

(1) The death-temperature of R. pipiens from cold is — 1259 +
mise C. .

(2) There is no climatic adaptation, nor any periodic adaptation due
to hibernation, in RA. pipiens.

(3) The cause of death is a specific temperature effect on the co-
ordinating centres in the central nervous system. Those controlling
lung-respiration may be specially concerned.

(4) Frogs surviving degrees of cold such as those occurring during a
Manitoban winter do so below the surface, near the margin of springs,
and are themselves never subject to temperatures below the freezing-
point of water.

(5) There seems to be a slight variation in the death-temperature
from cold, of different species of frogs, amounting to some tenths
of a degree Centigrade.

(6) Frogs heated rapidly to normal room-temperature from a tem-
perature just below the freezing-point of their body-fluids (and not itself
capable of causing death) are thrown into a peculiar hypersensitive
condition, in which cessation of lung-breathing takes place for long
periods.

These results are deduced from experiments with R. pipiens from
Manitoba, Minnesota, and Illinois, with R. clamitans from Minnesota,
and with R. sphenocephala from C. Carolina. The experimental details
will be published elsewhere. The Committee do not wish to be re-
appointed.

Miners’ Nystagmus.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. H. MurrHeap (Chairman), Dr. T. G.
MalTLaANp (Secretary), Dr. J. JAMESON Evans, and Dr.
C. 8. Mysrs, appointed to investigate the Physiological and
Psychological Factors in the Production of Miners’
Nystagmus.

Factors concerned: (a) Internal; central and peripheral. (b) External.

Two features have long been admitted to be provoking agencies in the
production of miners’ nystagmus—an external factor, defective lighting,
and an internal or peripheral factor, viz., muscular strain. The former,
defective lighting, is found to be the more important, and our examina-
tion led us to conclude that where this factor is in greatest evidence
there we find the greatest incidence of cases. Miners’ nystagmus is
a disease limited practically to coal-mining, and, further, it is associated
with the use of lamps of small illuminating power, such as the Davy
1914. R

242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

or its modifications, so that it is rare, even in coal-mines, to find
cases of nystagmus where more powerful illuminants such as candles
and electric lamps are used. Moreover, the great absorption of light by
the coal-surface diminishes the illuminating value of the lamp employed.
This absence of reflections from walls, floor, and ceilings interferes
with clear visualisation, since direct rays are never so satisfactory as
diffuse rays. The other factor mentioned above—muscular strain,
especially of the elevators of the eyeballs—is also taken into considera-
tion, notwithstanding the difference of opinion on the importance of
this. Snell has collected several cases of nystagmus which, as in the
case of compositors, has followed strain in this way, and we have
ourselves found that there is a larger number of cases of miners’
nystagmus associated with ‘holing’ than in any other occupa-
tion underground—under conditions, therefore, which demand an
awkward posture with straining of the head and eyes. Other sources
of peripheral irritation are opacities of the media, errors of refraction,
pigmentary and other ocular defects, which tend to produce or aggravate
nystagmus by either modifying illumination or by causing muscular
strain or by interfering with the direct rays on the fovea.

Taking all these factors, however, into consideration—factors which
are generally acknowledged—the fact remains that, working under
similar conditions of illumination and strain, a large percentage of
miners do not develop nystagmus, and it is our object to find out what
is the decisive factor. Admitting the external factors in those who
develop nystagmus to be more or less constant, admitting the occa-
sional possibility of peripheral factors such as those above mentioned,
there remains some factor unaccounted for which explains the selection
of certain miners for this trouble. At this stage of our inquiry, how-
ever, we investigated what seemed to us a neglected field—the relative
sensibility of the retina in the foveal and in the perifoveal regions—
and for this reason. The peculiar modifications which the dark-adapted
eye undergoes might bring about a still further interference with the
illumination by a reactive function on the part of the percipient.

A consideration of the conditions of work in the coal-mine sug-
gested very strongly the importance of the possession by the miners
of delicate vision sensibility. Before dark-adaptation could be fully
developed the miner at his first entry into the pit would have to
strain his vision under the most trying circumstances to avoid roof
obstacles as he made his way to his work. Such a strain would display
itself in the muscles chiefly involved, such as the elevators of the
eyelids and of the eyes. It is interesting clinically to find the initial
symptom complained of is a heaviness of the lids.

At work on the coal-face the miner with his eyes on the coal-
surface would be subjected only to a few reflected rays from smooth
facets of coal and some little diffused light from the coal-surface
generally. Very dim light would bring out the latent differences in
the visual sense, such as the differences of acuity between foveal and
perifoveal vision. If the rays were too feeble to excite foveal sensation
they might yet stimulate perifoveal sensation. ;

Our theory regarding this particular feature of the eye was that a

ON MINERS’ NYSTAGMUS. 243

perifoveal sensation, in the absence of foveal sensation, or a perifoveal
sensation of greater intensity than a foveal sensation, would excite
a fixational or movement reflex. This would bring the exciting point
in the marginal field on to the fovea, and would then either cease
altogether to excite sensation or would be so diminished in intensity
as to lay the eye open again to marginal stimulation. With a central
stigma, a neurasthenic diathesis, there would be present all the material
for the development of a habit spasm.

A large number of observations were made on students, assistants,
and ourselves with a piece of apparatus described in the appendix.
This apparatus was arranged to present a spot of light the intensity of
which was controllable. The open eye was directed on this spot while
the room was in full daylight, and then the room was suddenly plunged
into darkness. At the end of five seconds the subject was examined as
to his ability with direct vision to perceive this faintly illuminated spot,
its intensity rapidly altered until the subject was only just able to per-
ceive it. The time for this, the minimum visibile, usually took about
five seconds, and the degree of illumination was remarkably constant in
all these cases, so much so that we were able to fix on this degree of
light intensity as our zero. The direct vision was contrasted with
indirect vision, the subject being directed to look slightly away from the
spot of light, which at once appeared to become more vivid. The inten-
sity was then diminished until here again the spot was only just dis-
cerned, and so we obtained a minimum vision visibile for indirect or
perifoveal vision.

At intervals of two and a half minutes the minimum visibile was
estimated for both fovea and perifovea, and we were able to represent
in graphic form the increasing sensibility of the retina to faint illumina-
tion. In general the dark adaptability of fovea and perifovea increased
rapidly up to the end of half an hour, less rapidly up to the end of two
hours ; arriving then at its maximum sensibility it remained stationary.
The perifovea throughout this development of dark adaptation not only
retained its primary advantage, but slightly increased that advantage up
to the limit of change. In our experience in the coal-mines we never,
however, felt that the maximum amount of sensibility was ever in
demand, and while the light was indeed feeble enough to be exces-
sively irritating to our unaccustomed eyes, yet nowhere did we find
working conditions approaching our experimental conditions. Was the
miner’s eye differently equipped from our own, did it possess a greater
adaptability through use and habit ?

This led to an examination of the dark-adaptability of miners who
had been afflicted with nystagmus, and here we found without exception
a totally unexpected condition, yet one which now rendered plausible
our fixational hypothesis. Instead of finding a greatly increased adapt-
ability as a result of long use and cultivation of the eye in the dark,
we found that in this respect it was greatly inferior to the ‘ normal ’ eye.
In the first place the ‘zero’ was not perceived until after about five
minutes of exposure to the dark, and then once perceived it remained
without an appreciable development through the two hours’ experiment.
This peculiarity on the subjective side amounted to the same thing in

A R 2

244 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

its effects as a modification of the external factors of the illumination,
so that the differences observed in the normal eye, under the experi-
mental condition described above, might in the case of the miner come
into operation under the condition of his work owing to the altered
sensational values following retinal insensitiveness. The fact is that
the theory of ‘ fixational reflexes’ might yet be true of the behaviour
of the miner’s eye in the coal-mine.

The conclusion of the research so far then seemed more and more
to lay stress on the one well-recognised agency, that of illumination, and
that insensitiveness of the retina really amounted to the same thing
as an absolute decrease in the illuminant.

There remains for examination the actual excursion of the eye, and
an examination into the nervous system of the afflicted miner.

Since this was written an examination of unaffected miners has been
made, with the result that there is no appreciable difference between
their dark-adaptability and what we describe as the normal.

The Apparatus for estimating the Minimum Light Sensibility in the Process of
Dark-adaptation.

It consists of an oblong box, the front of which is pierced by a round hole
witha diameter of 20 mm., which is covered by an opal disc. At the back of the
box exactly facing this aperture is a sheet of white paper which reflects light
thrown upon it on to the disc. At the side of the box is another aperture into
which a tube nearly 2 m. long fits. This tube carries within it a small 2-volt
lamp which can be moved quite freely from end to end. The light from this
lamp is thrown on a mirror so placed that it reflects this light on to the sheet of
paper, which then reflects it on to the disc. It was only in this way the light
could be sufficiently diminished to obtain marginal stimuli.

After a number of experiments we arbitrarily decided upon our zero—that is,
the light that could be only just perceived five seconds after the room was
plunged in darkness. At intervals of two and a half minutes the subject was
tested again, and the lamp was gradually moved away from the box until the
subject failed to perceive the disc.

The Investigation of the Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. SEWARD
(Chairman), Mr. H. HamsHaw Tuomas (Secretary), Mr.
HaARoLD WAGER, and Professor F. EK. WEIssS.

Tus year attention has been concentrated on the plant beds on and
near Roseberry Topping, North East Yorkshire, more especially on the
Thinnfeldia beds. A careful search was made for the reproductive
structures of Thinnfeldia, and this was rewarded by the discovery of
numerous associated seed-like bodies, whose structure has yet to be
investigated, and which may, perhaps, prove to belong to this
plant. A new example of a Williamsoniella flower-bud was found,
which is of interest in greatly extending the range of this form. Some
fruits and seeds, probably referable to the provisional genus Caytonia,
were also discovered, though they were previously known only from
Gristhorpe. One or two new forms were found, and many duplicates
of the more interesting species were collected. It is not proposed to
continue field-work and collecting in the future on the same scale as

ON INVESTIGATION OF THE JURASSIC FLORA OF YORKSHIRE. 245

during the past three years until the existing collections have been
fully investigated.
The Committee does not seek re-appointment.

The Vegetation of Ditcham Park, Hampshire.—Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. G. TANSLEY (Chair-
man), Mr. R. 8. ApAmson (Secretary), Dr. C. E. Moss, and
Professor R. H. Yapp, appointed for the Investigation thereof.

Since the date of the last report a large number of experiments have
been carried out with evaporimeters. Especially, a large series of
simultaneous readings have been taken, covering a considerable period,
from instruments placed in various positions in beech-woods, coppices,
and in open grassland. Several of the results suggest further lines of
experimentation and research, but a much larger number of readings
must be obtained before any generalisation can be enunciated. The
evaporimeter readings have been run concurrently with a series of
readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers, and also of maximum and
minimum thermometers which have been placed in association with the
evaporimeters.

The work on soils has commenced, but so far has been mainly .
preliminary. Experiments have been made on soil temperatures,
especially in relation to exposure, drainage, woodland canopy, &c.

The general preliminary mapping of the various associations com-
posing the area has been completed, and an analysis of them has been
made from the topographical and floristic standpoints as a basis for
experimental work in the coming season. In this connection special
attention has been paid to the successive changes occurring after
coppicing till the re-forming of the full canopy, and also to the question
of the recolonisation by trees of cleared areas and grasslands. Data
_ been collected which serve as a starting-point for a more detailed
study.

The areas enclosed against rabbits, &c., have also been under
observation, and the changes occurring have been examined and
recorded.

The Committee asks to be reappointed, without a grant.

Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.—Report of
Committee, consisting of Professor F,. F. BuackMAn (Chair-
man), Mr. R. P. Grecory (Secretary), Professor W.
Bateson, and Professor F. KEEBLE.

Tue grant of 301. has been expended in part payment of the cost of

experiments conducted by Miss E. R. Saunders, Mr. R. P. Gregory,

and Miss A. Gairdner. Miss Saunders’ experiments with stocks have
had for their main objects :—

(1) The investigation of the condition known as half-hoariness and

246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 1914.

its relations to the glabrous and fully-hoary forms. A new half-hoary
race, which has been obtained after some difficulty, has made it possible
to design a complete series of experiments, which is now in progress.

(2) The further study of the gametic coupling already shown to exist
between the factors for double-flowers and plastid-colour. This in-
vestigation promises to give results of great interest, but a further
generation must be raised before a statement can be made.

(3) A result of some interest is the discovery that the double-
flowered plants, at least in some strains, have a more rapid and vigorous
growth than the singles. It is thus possible, by means of selection
based on this difference, to obtain a far higher percentage of doubles in
the flower-bed than would be expected from the normal output of
doubles by a double-throwing single.

(4) A beginning has also been made with the work of obtaining a
complete series of types of known factorial constitution, so that a supply
of material may be available for testing the view which has been put
forward as to the inter-relations between the factors determining hoari-
ness and sap-colour.

Experiments with foxgloves have been designed for the investigation
of a curious condition of partial hoariness, as well as for observations
on the range of variability in the heplandra form.

Experiments by Mr. Gregory with Primula sinensis have been
designed chiefly with a view to the investigation of the cytology and
genetics of certain giant races, which have been shown to be in the
tetraploid condition; that is to say, they have 4x (48) chromosomes in
the somatic cells and 2x (24) chromosomes in the gametic cells, whereas
in the diploid races the numbers are 2x (24) and x (12) respectively.
These experiments have given results of very great interest, which may
be briefly summarised by saying that the reduplication of the chromo-
somes has been found to be accompanied by a reduplication of the
series of factors, An account of this work has been published in the
‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ B., Vol. 87, p. 484, 1914, and it is hoped that a
further statement will be made at the meeting of the British Association
in Australia. Further experiments with these tetraploid plants are
designed especially to investigate the phenomena of coupling and repul-
sion between certain factors. These experiments promise to yield
results of very great interest, both as regards the genetics of tetraploid
plants and as regards cytological theory as to the possible relations
between factors and chromosomes.

In the experiments with the ordinary diploid races, an interesting
case has been discovered in which the coupling between the factors for
magenta and green stigma is on the system 7:1; whereas in a very
large number of other experiments the coupling (or repulsion) between
these factors is of a very low order, apparently less than 3:1.

A paper is in the course of preparation, and will shortly be
published in the ‘ Journal of Genetics,’ on the inheritance of green,
variegated, and yellow leaves in Primula. The variegated plants consist
of a mosaic of two kinds of cells, respectively like those of the pure
green and pure yellow-leaved plants. The. characters of the chloro-
plasts, on which greenness and yellowness depend, have been found to

ON EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEREDITY. 247

be inherited through the egg-cell only, the male gamete playing no part
in determining the nature of the offspring in respect of these characters.

The experiments of Mr. R. P. Gregory and Miss Gairdner on the
inheritance of variegation and other characters in Trope@olum have been
continued. It is hoped that sufficient data will have been gained by
the end of the present season to permit of the publication of an account
of this work. Present results indicate that in Trop@olum variegation
is inherited in the usual way from both the father and the mother, and
is a Mendelian recessive character. Other characters in Tropeolum
which are being studied are those of colour and habit (dwarf or trailing).

The experiments on the gynandrous variety of the Wallflower and
its relation to the normal type are nearing completion, and it is hoped
that an account of them will be published next year.

The Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of 45]. The
expenses of these experiments involve an annual outlay of about 1101.
to 1201. By far the largest item in this expenditure is the cost of
labour, which has increased during the last few years with the general
rise in wages which has taken place. Other important items are those
of the rent of the garden and the cost of heating the Primula house.
During the present year Miss Saunders and Mr. Gregory jointly receive
a grant from the Royal Society of 601. in aid.of the cost of this work.

Breeding Experiments with Ginotheras.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. BATEson (Chairman), Pro-
fessor F. KEEBLE (Secretary), and Mr. R. P. GReEcory,
appointed to carry out the Experiments.

Tur Committee have received the following Report from Dr. R. R.
Gates on the experiments which he has made :—

‘The grant of 201. made by the British Association for Gnothera-
breeding has been applied to the expenses of these experiments during
the last year. In the season of 1913 about 10,000 plants were grown,
representing a great many races and hybrids of Ginothera. The plants
were grown at Rothamsted on a two-acre plot set apart for the purpose.
They developed very successfully, nearly every individual reaching
maturity. The largest series of hybrids were the F, from @. grandi-
flora, GH. rubricalyx and its reciprocal, and the F, of crosses between
CH. grandiflora and Gi. Lamarckiana. The F, generation of the former
cross confirms and extends the results of the F, and F, generations
already published in ‘ Zeitschr. f. Abst. u. Vererb.,’ vol. xi. They
show in particular that both blending and alternative inheritance of
characters occur. Some of the plants, which have been examined
eytologically in conjunction with Miss Nesta Thomas, further emphasise
the fact that mutation and hybridisation in Cnothera are separate
processes, both of which may go on together. Some of these results
will be incorporated in a book now in preparation.’

248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 1914.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station in Jamaica.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. O. BowErR
(Chairman), Professor R. H. Yapr (Secretary), Professors R.
Butier, F. W. Oviver, and F. HE. WEIss.

Tur Committee has met twice. The negotiations with the Jamaican
Government are progressing favourably, the Committee having been
assisted by the advice of Sir David Prain. There is every prospect of
the house and buildings being let to the Committee on an annual tenancy
to commence from October 1, 1914, at a rent of 251. There has,
however, been considerable delay, partly owing to the long posts, partly
to the progress of papers through official channels.

As no agreement has yet been signed the grant of 251. has not
been drawn. But in view of the prospect of negotiations being com-
pleted on the terms above stated, the Committee ask that they may be
reappointed, and that the grant of 251. be carried over to the ensuing
year as an unexpended balance.

Mental and Physical Factors involved in Education.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. C. S. Myers (Chairman),
Professor J. A. GREEN (Secretary), Professor J. ApDAms, Dr.
G. A. AtpEN, Sir Epwarp Brasroox, Dr. W. Brown,
Professor E. P. CunvERWELL, Mr. G. F. DANIELL, Miss B.
Foxuey, Professor R. A. GrEeGoRy, Dr. C. W. KIMMINs,
Professor McDouaatu, Drs. T. P. Nunn, W. H. R. RIVERS,
and F. C. SuHRuBsALL, Mr. H. Bompas SMITH, Professor C.
SpEARMAN, Mr. A. Ei. TWENTYMAN, and Dr. F. WARNER,
appointed to inquire into and report upon the methods and
results of research into the Mental and Physical Factors
involved in Education.

Tue Committee has to report the retirement of its Chairman, Pro-
fessor J. J. Findlay, and the election of Dr. C. 5. Myers in his place.

They have been engaged in collating the data which was _pro-
visionally reported upon at Birmingham, and hope to present the
results in a definite form for the Manchester Meeting in 1915. The
Committee asks to be reappointed, and applies for a grant of 301.,
to include the unexpended balance from this year’s grant.

Influence of School-books upon Eyesight.—Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. A. AUDEN (Chairman),
Mr. G. F. Danrety (Secretary), Mr. C. H. BorHamuey, Mr.
W. D. Eaaar, Professor R. A. Grecory, Mr. N. BIsHop
Harman, Mr. J. L. Houuann, and Mr. W. T. H. WALSH.

In previous reports (1912 and 1913) reference was made to the injurious
effect of shiny paper, in particular to the interference with binocular

ON INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 249

vision which may result from excess of specular reflection. The
Committee is investigating the proportion of specular to diffusive
reflection in the case of books and writing-papers used in schools, and
has received valuable assistance from Mr. A. P. Trotter, who has
devised a gloss-tester. The Committee desires to continue this investi-
gation in the hope of arriving at an objective standard the adoption of
which would prevent injury to eyesight through the use of glossy paper,
and therefore asks to be reappointed with a grant of 5l. in addition to
the unexpended balance of last year’s grant.

Museums.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. A. GREEN (Chairman), Mr. H. Bouton and Dr. J. A.
Cuuss (Secretaries), Dr. BatHER, Mr. EX. GRay, Mr. M. D.
Hitt, Dr. W. EK. Hoyt, Professors E. J. GARwoop and
P. NEWBERRY, Sir RicHaRpD TEMPLE, Mr. H. H. THomas,
Professor F. E. Weiss, and Mrs. J. WHITR, appointed to
examine the Character, Work, and Maintenance of Museums.

Tue Committee report that a detailed schedule of inquiry upon
Museums has been drawn up and presented to the House of Lords by
Lord Sudeley. It is hoped that the schedule will be issued by the
Board of Education, and that the information obtained will be available
for the purposes of the Committee. Opinions and reports have been
obtained upon various sections of museum work and their relation to
various divisions of Education. Other inquiries of a similar nature
are also being made. Offers of assistance have been received from the
American Association of Museums. Two members of the Committee
will examine overseas museums during their journey to and from
Australia and report.

A deputation will report upon the educational work of Museums
in France.

The following questions are receiving special consideration :—

The requirements of (1) students; (2) school children; (3) general
visitors to museums.

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 301., includ-
ing the balance, 71. 9s. 2d., of last year’s grant, now in hand.

250 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

On Salts Coloured by Cathode Rays.
By Professor E. GOLDSTEIN.

[Ordered, on behalf of the General Committee, to be printed in extenso.]

Preruars a part of the phenomena which I am about to discuss is
already familiar to you all. I shall not bring forward many hypo-
theses. So you will perhaps ask why I should speak at all. And,
in fact, apart from reference to certain facts not published hitherto,
my intention is mainly to invite the interest of men younger and abler
than myself in a class of phenomena which seem to constitute a new
condition of matter, but on which very few have yet worked.

If cathode rays fall on certain salts—for example, common salt, or
chloride of potassium, or potassium bromide—vivid colours are pro-
duced immediately on these salts.1 Thus common salt becomes
yellow-brown (like amber), potassium chloride turns into a beautiful
violet, potassium bromide becomes a deep blue colour quite like copper
sulphate. Here you see a specimen of common salt transformed in
this way on the surface of the single crystals into a yellow-brown
substance. I show also sodium fluoride, which takes a fine rosy
colour.

The colours so acquired in a very small fraction of a second may
be preserved for a long time, even for many years, if the coloured
substances are kept in the dark and at low temperatures. But in
the daylight, and also under heat, the colours will gradually disappear
till the original white condition is reached again.

The colours of different salts are sensitive to heating in a very
different degree. I could show you the yellow sodium chloride, pre-
pared some months ago in Europe, but I cannot show you here the
violet KCl and the blue KBr, because these colours, even in the dark,
do not stand the heat of the Equator. The same salt, if dissolved,
may keep very different colours, according to the medium in which
it has been dissolved, even when the pure medium itself cannot be
coloured at all by cathode rays. I am speaking of solid solutions,
produced by fusing a small quantity—for instance, of common salt
or of certain other alkali salts—together with a great mass of a
salt which remains itself colourless in the cathode rays, as, for example,
the pure potassium sulphate. Lithium chloride acquires a_ bright
yellow colour in the cathode rays; but if dissolved in potassium sul-
phate a lilac hue is produced, as you may see in this specimen. Like-
wise the pure carbonate of potassium acquires a reddish tint, but
after dissolving it in the potassium sulphate it becomes a vivid green
in the cathode rays, as you see here.

Very small admixtures are sufficient to produce intense colours.
So soy Of carbonate will produce the green colour in the potassium

1 E. Goldstein, Wiedem. Ann. 54,371; 60,491; Phys. Zeitschr. 8, 149 ; Sitzungsber,
Berl. Akad. d. Wiss. 1901, 222.

ON SALTS COLOURED BY CATHODE RAYS. 251

which you will detect the nature of the different small ad-
mixtures which adhere to the pretended pure preparations of the
different factories. In this way a new analytical proof, much more
sensitive than the ordinary chemical methods, is obtained, and im-
purities may be detected even when a certain specimen of salt contains
more than a single impurity, because the colours produced by different
admixtures generally disappear with different speed in the daylight or
under rise of temperature. For instance, the ordinary potassium
sulphate turns to a dark gray with a slight greenish tint at first.
After a short while the very sensitive gray will disappear, simply under
the ordinary temperature of the laboratory room, and a vivid green
comes out. The gray hue indicates a very small amount of sodium
chloride, ;54555 or so, and the remaining green indicates the admix-
ture of a carbonate. Here are some preparations of potassium sul-
phate each containing a single small admixture (K,CO,, Li,CO,,
LiCl, KCl, KBr). You will notice how different are the colours of
the originally white substance, varying from green to bluish gray, ash-
gray, grayish blue, and violet.

By fractional crystallisation one may finally get a really pure pre-
paration of potassium sulphate, which is no longer coloured by
cathode rays (or only in a very slight degree, indicating minimal traces
of sodium chloride). But there are other preparations which, so far
as I know, cannot be acquired in pure condition by any means, not
even by fractional crystallisation. I never came across a pure sodium
sulphate—the purity exists only on the manufacturers’ labels. Even
the best preparations of this salt contain an amount of sodium car-
bonate which up to the present cannot be separated from it, not
even by frequent fractional crystallisation. The colour produced by
the small admixture, which always remains, is a very marked ash-
gray. By an intentional further addition of sodium carbonate the
colour becomes nearly black.

The question arises: What may be the cause of these colourations
in pure salts and also in solid solutions of them? Shortly after the
colours of the alkali salts had been discovered, an explanation was
given’, according to which the phenomenon mainly consists in a
chemical reduction. For instance, in the case of potassium chloride
the chlorine would be set free, while the remaining potassium is dis-
solved in the unaltered main quantity of the salt, colouring it at
the same time. And it seemed a convincing proof for this theory
when Giesel® and also Kreutz, simply by heating rock salt in the
vapours of sodium or of potassium, produced colours in this rock
salt quite similar to those produced by cathode rays. It seemed that

2 EK. Wiedemann and G. C. Schmidt, Wied. Ann. 54, 618.
8 ¥, Giesel, Ber. D. Chem. Ges. 80, 156.

202, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the problem was settled finally. However, it was soon discovered
that the coloured Giesel salts, although they look to the eye quite
like the cathode-ray salts, in all other respects behave quite differently.
For instance :—

(1) The cathode-ray salts, as I mentioned before, are very sensitive
to daylight: after an exposure to diffuse daylight of a few minutes—or
in some salts even of several seconds only—the colouration diminishes,
whilst the Giesel salts remain unaltered even when they are kept in full
sunshine for days or even weeks.

(2) The cathode-ray salts, if dissolved in distilled water, show
absolute neutral reaction; the Giesel salts are strongly alkaline.

(3) The cathode-ray salts give very marked photoelectric effects (as
Elster and Geitel* observed); the Giesel salts are quite ineffective.

(4) Under certain circumstances, which will be mentioned further
on, the cathode-ray salts may emit a phosphorescent light, the Giesel
salts none at all. Therefore the question arose again, whether there
is not a marked internal difference between the cathode-ray salts and
the Giesel salts, and what is the nature of the latter?

I have succeeded in settling this question, having produced salts
by cathode rays, the behaviour of which is in every respect absolutely
identical with the Giesel salts. You may produce such substances if
you allow the cathode rays to fall on the original salts not for a short
moment only, but for a somewhat prolonged time, until the salts are
strongly heated. Produced in this way the salts will keep colours; but
the substances coloured in this way are not sensitive to light; they
show no photoelectric effect; they give strong alkaline reaction, and
they are not suited for phosphorescence—all like the Giesel salts. It
is quite sure, and you may test it also directly by spectroscopic proof,
that in this case, if for instance you have worked on sodium chloride,
the chlorine is set free. Then of course an amount of free sodium is
left, which dissolves itself in a deeper layer of unaltered sodium
chloride, to which the cathode rays could not penetrate. I call these
non-sensitive colours the after-colours of the second class, while the
ordinary sensitive after-colours, produced in a short time on cool
salts, are called after-colours of the first class.

Now, u the after-colours of the second class are identical with
the Giesel salts, then, of course, the very different substances of the
first class cannot be also identical with the Giesel salts. Therefore the
question arises anew what is the nature of the first-class after-colours?

One observes with regard to solid solutions that the first-class colours
depend not only upon the metal contained in the small admixture, but
they vary greatly, for instance, in the case of the admixture consisting
of potassium chloride or bromide or iodide. This indicates that the
metals alone do not cause the after-colours. It becomes much more
clear when we expose some ammonium salts to the cathode rays. (The
ammonium salts are cooled by liquid air in the discharge-tube to prevent
their evaporation.) Then you get strongly marked after-colours like-
wise; for instance, ammonium chloride becomes yellow-greenish, the
bromide becomes yellow-brown, the iodide becomes brown, and the

4 J. Elster and H. Geitel. Wied. Ann. 59, 487.

ON SALTS COLOURED BY CATHODE RAYS. 253

fluoride a deep blue. In the daylight these colours are gradually
destroyed, quite like other after-colours of the first class. The colours
themselves—yellow-greenish for the chloride, yellow-brown for the
bromide, and so on—induce us to presume that the after-colours in this
case are produced by the haloids, and not by the hypothetical
ammonium radical. This presumption becomes a strong conviction
when we observe that also a great number of organic preparations
which contain no metal at all (and not any metal-like radical) acquire
marked after-colours of the first class in the cathode rays also. (The
part of the discharge-tube which contains the organic substances is
cooled by liquid air.)

Then you may observe that solid acetic acid (C,H,O,) remains
quite colourless in the cathode rays; but if you substitute a hydrogen
atom by chlorine, the substance thus produced (the monochloro-acetic
acid) acquires a marked yellow-green after-colour. If you introduce
an atom of bromine instead of chlorine, you get C,H,BrO, and the
after-colour is of a marked yellow. Bromoform (CHBr;,) turns into
the colour of loam, and chloral (C,HCI],0) becomes a deep yellow.
In this way we see that not only salts, but likewise substituted acids,
substituted hydrocarbons, and substituted aldehydes acquire after-
colours if they contain any haloid.

Now, it seems highly improbable that in the case of alkali salts the
electro-positive component is absorbed only (producing the after-colour),
and that, on the other hand, in the ammonium salts and in the organic
substances the electro-negative component is efficient only. The most
probable inference is that in each case both components remain and
that both are efficient, but that under the same conditions the haloids
produce a slighter colour than the metals, so that in the case of the
salts the haloid colour is overwhelmed by the metal colour.

Therefore we are compelled to suppose that we have not to deal
with a decomposition in the ordinary form, by which the different com-
ponents are finally separated from each other and at least one of them
is set entirely free, but that the components detained by absorption
remain at a quite short distance from each other, so that they may
easily meet again. I realise that—for instance, in the case of sodium
chloride—at every point of the coloured layer there is an atom (or
perhaps a molecule) of chlorine and an atom (or a molecule) of sodium ;
but they cannot combine, because they are fixed by absorption and dis-
tended from each other by the absorptive power, which in this case
surpasses the chemical affinity. But the absorptive power may be
weakened by heating and the chemical affinity or the amplitude of the
molecular vibrations may be strengthened by the energy of daylight.

If we grant these assumptions, it is immediately evident why the
reaction of all dissolved colour substances of the first class is a
neutral one, for the two components may combine again and re-
establish the original substance. The other special qualities of the
first-class colours, and especially their differences from the Giesel
salts, which contain the electropositive component only, may be de-
duced likewise from this retention of both components and their oppor-
tunity of meeting each other again when the absorptive power is

254. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

weakened or the chemical affinity is strengthened. Now, the two
components in the coloured substances being distended in some degree,
I propose for this special condition of matter the name of distension. If
we accept this, have we created a new name only, or does matter in
this condition really show new qualities? It seems to me that we
have to deal with a peculiar condition of matter, which deserves a
more elaborate study than it has met till now. I will not enter again
into some special qualities, which have already been mentioned—the
photoelectric effect and so on—but I should like to point out that
matter in the distension state shows a strongly strengthened absorption
of light.

We noticed with regard to ammonium chloride the yellow-greenish
after-colour of the chlorine. Now, cathode rays, as used in these
experiments, will not penetrate any deeper than one-hundredth of a
millimetre into the salt. In such a thin layer even pure liquefied
chlorine would not show any perceptible colour. But besides this it
must be noticed that we observe this after-colour at the temperature
of liquid air, and that chlorine at this temperature, as Dewar and
Moissan observed, is snow-white, even in thick layers. In a similar
degree the brown colour of bromine is weakened at low temperatures.
Now, if nevertheless we observe at this very low temperature the marked
characteristic colours of chlorine and bromine, we must conclude that
the absorptive power of these substances has become a multiple of
its ordinary value. One may observe this strengthening of the absorp-
tive power directly in the pure sulphur. Sulphur likewise turns into
a snow-white substance if cooled by liquid air. But when the cathode
rays fall on the white sulphur it takes immediately a yellow-reddish
colour. It is a real after-colour, because at constant low temperature
the colour is destroyed by daylight.

Now, since the strengthening of light-absorption occurs in this
elementary substance, it becomes evident that the cause cannot be
any chemical process, but only a physical allotropy. The special
character of this allotropy (which may be connected with an absorp-
tion of electrons) will not be entered on in a discussion here. Probably
we have to deal with a polymerisation, so that, for instance, the
yellow-reddish sulphur would be analogous to polymerised oxygen—to
ozone.

I have mentioned already that the first-class after-colours are
gradually destroyed by incident daylight. A peculiar phenomenon is
connected with this destruction of colour. I found that after the day-
light had fallen on the coloured substances, even for the shortest time?
most of them showed a marked phosphorescence of long duration.
I have observed this phosphorescence even in substances which had
been coloured twelve years ago and had been kept in the dark since
that time. The diffused dim light of a gloomy November day, when
falling through a window on the coloured substance for one or two
seconds only, is sufficient for the production of this phosphorescence
in a marked degree. If you allow the daylight to fall several times
on the same spot, then the colour is weakened at this spot, and we
come to the presumption that the loss of colouration is generally

ON SALTS COLOURED BY CATHODE RAYS. 255

attended by the emission of phosphorescent light. This is in accord-
ance’ with the experience of Wiedemann and Schmidt that if the
destruction of the colour is produced by heating, likewise a phos-
phorescent light is produced, which in this case is strong but of a
short duration, corresponding to the quick destruction of the after-
colours by strong heating.

If the salts, after having been coloured in the condition of a fine
powder and then having been put between two glass plates (in order
to obtain a plane surface), are placed in a photographic camera instead
of the photographic plate, you may get a fine phosphorescent picture
of a landscape or of architecture after a very short exposure.

Time does not allow me to mention in detail several other
peculiarities which are shown by matter in the distension state. In
one direction only I may be allowed to make some remarks.

The first-class after-colours may be produced not only by cathode
rays but also by the B rays of radioactive substances, as you probably
know. But they may also be produced by ultra-violet light, for
instance, by ultra-violet spark light, even when a quartz plate is inter-
posed between the spark and the salt. More than thirty years ago [
brought forward a hypothesis, according to which in every point where
cathode rays strike a solid body a thin layer of ultra-violet light-
radiating molecules is produced in the gas, to which ultra-violet light of
very short wave-lengths, for instance, the phosphorescence of the glass
walls in the cathode rays, is due. But I came further to the assumption
that nearly all effects which are commonly ascribed to special qualities
of the cathode rays, and likewise of § rays and x rays, are mere effects
of the ultra-violet light which is produced by the stopping of these rays.
I have been guided by this assumption during many years, and have
very often been aided by it in foreseeing new phenomena. For
instance, in this way I was induced to expect that the after-colours
would be produced not only by cathode rays but also by the ordinary
ultra-violet light; further I could guess that also the x rays would
produce after-colours (which in this case have been observed by
Holzknecht), and in recent times I could foresee that solid aromatic
substances (the benzene derivatives) in the ultra-violet light must change
their spectra of ordinary phosphorescence, composed of broad bands,
and turn to peculiar spectra composed of narrow stripes, the wave-
lengths of which are characteristic of the single aromatic substances.°
So I believe also that the after-colours are produced not directly by the
cathode rays or by B rays, but by the aforesaid ultra-violet light which
is connected with the stopping of the other rays.

In this way the after-colours enter at once into a great class of
phenomena known as reversible effects of light. You know that certain
effects of the visible spectral rays are destroyed by rays of longer
wave-lengths, by the infra-red rays. And the analogy to this
phenomenon is in my opinion the destruction of the after-colours: they
are produced by the ultra-violet light of the stopped cathode rays and
are annihilated by the longer visible wave-lengths of daylight. In this
way you may likewise understand, for instance, that the coloured

5 KE. Goldstein, Verhandl. d. D. Physik. Ges. 12.

256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

spots, produced by x rays on the luminescent screens after long
exposure, may he destroyed again by exposure of the screens to day-
light. You may also explain the peculiar medical observation that
therapeutic radium effects in parts of the human body not covered,
specially in the face, are often not of long duration—for the face is
exposed to the counteracting visible rays of daylight.

We notice here a connection of our subject with a department of
great practical importance. For all therapeutic effects of a rays,
radium rays, and mesothorium rays would, according to this view, be
effects only of ultra-violet light produced by the stopping of these rays
in the human body, and the ‘special character of the radium- and meso-
thorium- and z-ray treatment would consist mainly in the carriage into
the interior of the body, by the rays, of the ultra-violet light, which
is not confined to the surface of the body, but is produced at every place
where any of the entering rays are stopped. You may notice further
that this view of the medical ray-effects presents a heuristic method
for the treatment itself, which up to the present followed quite fortui-
tous and merely empirical paths. For it may be hoped that treatment
by radioactive substances will be useful in every disease in which ultra-
violet light has been proved to be efficient in some degree; you will
avoid such treatment in the well-known cases in which light of short
waye-lengths is noxious, and you may be justified in substituting an
ultra-violet light treatment where radium or mesothorium is not obtain-
able. At the same time it becomes evident why the treatment of certain
diseases by the # rays has effects very similar to those produced by
fulguration—that is, by the light of very strong sparks: the efficient
agent is in both cases the ultra-violet light. :

But it cannot be a physicist’s task to enter too far in medical
questions: it was only my intention to show how interesting are some
of the problems which are connected with the salts coloured by cathode
rays.

The Problem of the Visual Requirements of the Sailor and the
Railway Employee. By JAMEs W. Barrett, C.M.G., M.D.,
M.S., F.R.C.S. Eng.

[Ordered, on behalf of the General Committee, to be printed in eaxtenso.]

Tuer discussions which have taken place on this subject are apparently
interminable. They have for the most part resolved themselves into
discussions amongst oculists and communications made by deputation
or otherwise to the Board of Trade presenting their point of view.

The Board of Trade, whilst it has collected a certain amount of
valuable information, has not materially modified its methods, and
apparently does not propose to do so. As its authority weighs heavily
in the Dominions, which are as a rule not consulted by it before it takes
action, various anomalies make their appearance. I venture therefore
to bring before this meeting of the Physiological Section of the British
Association a summary of the present position.

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAILOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE, 257

Until recently the standard adopted by the Board of Trade was
normal colour vision as tested by coloured wools and a form vision
equal to 6/12 partly with both eyes open. In other words, the theo-
retical objective was normal colour vision, and form vision of such a
standard that one eye might be totally blind and the other possess
somewhat less than half vision. The Board, however, appointed an
expert committee in 1910, which took evidence and made a number of
recommendations. This committee sat for two years, and in its report
recommended that the form vision required should be 6/6 in one eye
and 6/12 in the other, and that colour vision should be tested by wools
and by coloured lanterns. It did not, however, definitely recommend
that the eyes of those who enter dangerous services should be subjected
to a complete ophthalmological examination when the boy first goes to
sea. Apparently such changes would have required fresh legislation.

Since this report, however, the Board of Trade has again altered
its requirements, and now requires the candidate to read 6/9 partly and
6/6 partly with both eyes open, which means, simply, that the old
standard has been reverted to as regards form vision, except that the
minimum has been raised from 6/12 partly to 6/9 partly. During the
course of its long inquiry the expert committee apparently did not
consult those in the Dominions who were dealing with the matter, with
the exception of the examination of two witnesses, nor did they
apparently seek to make any careful reference to the various accidents
which have taken place by sea and land and can be attributed to
defective vision.

Clause 13 of the Report of the Departmental Committee on Sight
Tests states:—‘ Sir Walter Howell informed us that the Board of
Trade were not aware of any casualty which could be traced to defective
vision. He explained that the Board could raise any question they
pleased on an official inquiry into a marine casualty ; that the smallest
question as to the colour vision of any officer concerned would be probed
to the bottom; that if there were any question of confusion the men
concerned would be re-tested; but that such a question had not been
raised in a single instance. We have examined a large number of the
Reports of Board of Trade inquiries, and the result of our examinations
has confirmed the view that no official evidence exists of casualties due
to this cause. We have examined eight master mariners of long
experience, none of whom knew of any case in which a casualty had
arisen from defective vision.’

Clause 14.—‘ At our request the Liverpool Steamship Owners’
Association ascertained that, of its members, the owners of 857 steam
vessels, of the aggregate tonnage of 3,776,695 tons, knew of no instances
in which mistakes due to defective form or colour vision had been made
in the reading of lights at sea, and of no instance of difficulty of reading
signals ; while the owners of 59 steam vessels of 192,494 tons knew of
some few instances in which a man’s sight had been or had been
alleged to have been defective, but of no casualty resulting therefrom.’

Clause 15.— The Secretary of the Joint Arbitration Committee at
Grimsby, which investigates the circumstances of a large number of
collisions every year, has never known of a collision caused through

1914. s

258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the mistaking of the colour ofa light. The Manager of the Hull Steam
Trawlers’ Mutual Insurance and Protection Co., Ltd., who in 12 years
has had to deal with an average of 100 collisions a year, knows of
only four cases in which any question of defective vision has arisen.
Two of these cases were in elderly men, and in the other two the
witness considered the danger was caused by excessive smoking.’

Clause 17.—' The Board of Trade casualty returns, which include
collisions to foreign ships on or near the coast of the United Kingdom
and of British Possessions, show no case in which a sea casualty has
been attributed to the defective vision either of an officer or a look-out
man; but they show that since the adoption of the 1894 sight tests
there have been reported on the average each year 100 collisions
attributed to bad look-out and 429 strandings attributed to causes con-
nected with navigation and seamanship. The strandings resulting
from bad look-out are not shown separately. From these returns it is
not possible to arrive at any reliable estimate of the total number that
might have been occasioned by the defective vision of the officer in
charge or of the man on the look-out. Further, the returns, as they
do not distinguish the vessels commanded by officers who have passed
the 1894 sight test, afford only a general basis of determining how far
the existing system has been successful in eliminating dangerously
defective men; but they do show that amongst the vessels registered in
the United Kingdom the total number of collisions attributable to bad
look-out and of strandings attributable to all causes relating to naviga-
tion and seamanship is less than 500 a year. The Board of Trade has
no record of the actual number of voyages made by British vessels, but
on a rough estimate that number cannot be less than 300,000 a year.’

Clause 18.-—‘ There appears to be no evidence showing conclusively
that defective vision has caused any appreciable number of accidents at
sea, although we do not think that it necessarily follows from this that
the present method, even where it has been employed, has been success-
ful in excluding all dangerous persons from the Mercantile Marine, or
that no accidents have been caused in this way, since it has not been
the practice, in conducting inquiries into the causes of casualties, to
test the vision of persons implicated: We think it regrettable that
effect has not been given to the recommendation as to the testing of
witnesses contained in the report of the committee of the Royal Society
in 1894, and we desire to repeat that recommendation—that in case
of judicial inquiries as to collisions or accidents witnesses giving
evidence as to the nature or position of coloured Signals and lights
should be themselves tested for colour and form vision.

Sir Norman Hill, who signed the Minority Report, states that ‘
the absence of all evidence of any single casualty resulting from defec-
tive form vision I am opposed to the retention of the new standard
under which 10 per cént. of the candidates who have for many years
proved their competency would have been excluded from the service.’
Mr. Nettleship, however, one of the members, since the publication of
the Report, made a collection of the cases in which disaster at sea or
land seemed to be actually or potentially due to these causes, and was
in communication with the writer in regard to the details of a number

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAILOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE. 259

of other cases at the time of his death. In that work Mr. Nettleship
makes the following pertinent observation (p. 3):—‘ For reasons
such as the above, defects in sight are regarded by those who have to
inquire into accidents as of such little importance that in the official
investigations the question of defects of sight in the men who are
on look-out or corresponding duty is scarcely ever raised. Naturally,
therefore, no accidents are discovered to have had visual defects’ for
their cause. Continuing to reason in a circle, the conclusion is that
defects of sight do not cause accidents! It would be ludicrous if the
matter were not so grave that though precautions of greater or less
efficacy are taken to exclude men with conspicuous defects of sight from
entering the sea or railroad services because such defects are admittedly
dangerous, yet, when the accident happens, no trouble is taken to find
out whether the man responsible for it has efficient sight or not. Every
possible cause for the casualty is sought out, but the possibility that his
vision either was defective when he entered the service or has become
so since is never even considered.’

Yet in spite of the foregoing the fact remains that Dr. Orr and I
reported in the Lancet, October 29, 1904, the account of the wreck of
the Australia and the previous grounding of the Indraghiri by a pilot
whose form vision was very defective. In spite of this Report, the
statements of Sir Walter Howell and Sir Norman Hill appear in the
Expert Committee’s Report. I propose now to refer to the methods
adopted in the Victorian Railways, the Victorian Pilot Service, and the
Union 8.8. Co. of New Zealand. The history of vision-testing in the
Victorian Railways is too lengthy for detailed reference. The number
of candidates who have to be dealt with is very large, and the Depart-
ment has adopted a rough-and-ready plan with which I am not in
complete sympathy, but which undoubtedly eliminates the majority of
the defective cases. Colour vision is tested by the lantern and form
vision by Snellin’s types. For those entering the service the vision
required is 6/6 in each eye and 6/6 in both together. The pupil is then
dilated with homatropine and the vision is again tested. It must now
not be less than 6/12 in each eye or 6/12 in both together. Once the
applicants are admitted to the service they are re-tested without the
use of homatropine, and must possess 6/12 vision in each eye and 6/9 in
both together.

I propose now to indicate the steps that have been taken by the
Marine Board of Victoria to provide for the thorough examination of
the vision of pilots who enter their service, and for their re-examination
since the disaster of 1904. I also quote Clauses 100, 102, 104 and
105 of the regulations which provide for the contingencies to which
Mr. Nettleship referred.

Victorian Pilot Regulations.

Pilots must be examined prior to admission to the service, and
their vision must be as follows :—
__ 1. Vision to be 6/6 in each eye without glasses.
-2.- The total error of refraction not to exceed 1 d, and of this
s2

260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

astigmatism not to exceed ‘5 d. This estimate to be made by
retinoscopy with the eye under the influence of a mydriatic.

3. The pupillary reflex to be normal, the fundus to be free from
disease, visual fields normal, and balance of colour muscles to be
normal. Candidate to possess binocular vision.

4. Colour vision to be normal as tested by coloured wools and
coloured discs.

If persons possessing these qualifications are admitted, on re-
examination the standard required is :—

1. The same as in the case of an applicant for a licence, except that
after admission into the service deterioration of vision will be allowed,
provided that the vision is not less than 6/9 fully and 6/6 partly in
each eye.

2. There must be no evidence of any morbid or other condition
in either eye which would render it probable that the vision would
deteriorate before the next periodical examination.

Clause 100 provides that ‘every pilot until he arrives at the full
age of sixty years, whether licensed before or after the coming into
force of these regulations, shall at intervals of not more than twelve
calendar months, and in the case of a pilot who under the regulations
does not necessarily retire at the age of sixty years, after he attains that
age, at intervals of not more than six calendar months, have his
eyes examined and vision tested, and pass as satisfying the prescribed
standard by an expert oculist to be approved by the Marine Board.’

Clause 102 provides :—‘ If, on the occasion of any examination or
testing of a pilot or of his eyesight or vision (whether biennial, sixth
monthly, or casual) any physical, mental, or visual defect is discovered
which in the opinion of the medical examiner or expert oculist, as the
case may be, does not immediately, but may within a variable time,
render the pilot unfit for service, such pilot shall submit himself for
re-examination within such lesser intervals than those hereinbefore pre-
scribed as the examiner or oculist, as the case may be, may certify
to be necessary, any longer interval hereinbefore limited to the contrary
notwithstanding. ’

Clause 104 provides :—‘ In the event of any casualty or accident
occurring to or in connexion with any vessel or incidental to the naviga-
tion thereof, which in the opinion of the Marine Board may be due to or
of which in its opinion one of the contributing causes may have been
some defect in health or vision of the pilot in charge, such pilot shall
if required by the Board forthwith submit himself and be examined
by a medical practitioner or expert oculist to be nominated by the
Board, or by both, as the Board may direct, and until such practitioner
or oculist or both, as the case may be, shall certify that such pilot is fit
physically and mentally or visually, and such certificate be lodged with
the Secretary to the Board, such pilot shall not follow his calling.’

Clause 105:—‘If any pilot be absent from duty on account of
illness, and such absence shall extend beyond twenty-eight days, or in
case of illness of any duration, if the Marine Board think it advisable,
or when from any other cause any pilot has been absent from duty and

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SAILOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE. 261

such absence shall have extended for six calendar months or upwards,
such pilot shall not return to duty unless and until, as regards his
condition physical and mental, a medical practitioner and, as regards
his vision and eyesight, an expert oculist, to be in both cases nominated
by the Marine Board, have respectively certified to the Board that such
pilot is in a fit condition physically, mentally, and visually to perform
his duties as a pilot.’

The annual examination of the pilots has probably averted disaster,
as one pilot was retired with high blood-pressure and retinal hemor-
rhages detected in the course of periodical examination.

The Union Steamship Company of New Zealand adopts a like
standard for those who enter its service, and provides for periodical
testing of form vision.

What standard of form and colour vision is necessary for safe
navigation or railway service?

So far as colour vision is concerned the results of the ordinary tests
with wools and lanterns seem to coincide with the quantitative measure-
ments made by Sir William Abney, and I have never seen any prac-
tical difficulty in detecting a dangerous degree of colour defect by the
combination of these means.

With regard to form vision, however, the matter is not nearly so
simple. Two questions arise: What standard of form vision shall be
required? and, Are two eyes necessary? Some time ago, in the
Ophthalmic Review, Mr. Fergus gave an account of his own experi-
ence in motor navigation with defective vision. Apart from theoretical
disquisition which I was unable to follow, he stated correctly enough
that lowered form vision means for the most part a loss of detail. A
house is still seen as a house at a distance when the form vision
is lowered, and a ship is still seen as a ship in like circumstances. I,
however, set to work to make myself artificially myopic with bi-convex
glasses, and to reduce my form vision to different degrees in order to
repeat his experience. In passing, however, it should never be for-
gotten that the standards given by Snellin’s types are at best approxi-
mate. They depend on the illumination of the types, on the contrast
between the letters and the background, on the illumination of the
room, and the size of the pupil. They nearly always give better results
in daylight than by artificial illumination. At best they have approxi-
mate significance.

_ Rendering my eyes artificially myopic in this way, I reduced my
vision to 6/9 partly and 6/12, and found, as Mr. Fergus said, that
houses, men, dogs, and objects of various kinds were still recognised
as such, but certain details could not be detected. For example, a
man and a dog at five hundred yards’ distance were seen as one mass;
a flag on a flagpole at a distance of a mile was indefinite, so that one
could not tell which way the wind was blowing. Outside Dunedin
Harbour I mistook a ship on the rocks for the rocks themselves. By
bright ordinary daylight I should have experienced little or no difficulty
in navigating. Furthermore, in a long motor run there was not the
least difficulty in seeing details on the road, and there would have been
no difficulty in steering the motor. At evening, however, and at night,

262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

the matter was entirely different, and with this reduced vision motor
driving would have been full of difficulty and danger by reason of the
reduction of the range of vision. When, however, I lowered the vision
to 6/18 partly navigation and motor driving would have been dangerous
by night or day.

The experimental evidence obtained by the Expert Committee at
Shoeburyness was to the effect that vision of less than 6/12 seriously
affects colour perception, and that consequently 6/12 represents the
minimum of vision compatible with safety. This accords with my own
personal experience, with the reservation that anyone who possesses
6/6 vision will be a much safer navigator, other things being equal,
than anyone who possesses 6/12 vision.

Mr. Fergus seems to draw a distinction between myopia and hyper-
opia, but when I have rendered my vision defective by rendering my
eyes hyperopic—that is, by the wearing of concave spectacles—I have
been unable to detect any practical difference in the result. In both
cases one makes many failures when one’s colour vision is tested by
the lantern. When the aperture is small and the light a little dim,
no colour can be seen at all, probably for the reason that Sir William
Abney instances.

In Sir Wiliam Abney’s work, dated 1913, ‘ Researches in Colour
Vision’ (p. 409), reference to similar experimental work is made.
The writer, a few years ago, when considering other causes than those
of deficient colour sensation which might prevent the recognition of
colour, came to the conclusion that the optical condition of the eye
might be of such a nature that small discs of coloured light might be
taken as colourless or not seen at all. To confirm or disprove his
diagnosis he made his eye myopic and observed a ship’s light from the
sea-coast and also known stars, and found that with about half normal
vision the ship’s light at two miles was sometimes invisible or colour-
less, and that only stars above the fourth or fifth magnitude could make
any impression on the retina.

Conclusion.

There is abundant evidence to show that a number of disasters by
land and sea are attributable to defective vision. There is also good
reason for thinking that a larger number of accidents have occurred
which have not been reported, and, as Mr. Nettleship says, they never
will be reported under existing conditions. It is clear that, so long as
the present mode of lighting ships and the present method of using
railway signals are continued, form vision below 6/12 is dangerous
as regards its effect on colour perception, and is dangerous by reason
of the limitation of the range of vision in dull light, and I am of
opinion that for the purposes of safety the minimum visual require-
ments should be 6/9 in one eye and 6/18 in the other. A hyper-
metropia of two dioptres with astigmatism not exceeding ‘75. D might
be permitted. The colour vision should be normal and tested both with
wools and lights, and there should be no ocular disease. To satisfy
these requirements it is necessary that all those who go to sea or
enter the railway service to earn a livelihood should be examined at

VISUAL REQUIREMENTS OF SATLOR AND RAILWAY EMPLOYEE. 263

the outset of their career, since one complete ophthalmological
examination at that period of life will enable the future vision of the
examinee to be predicted with tolerable certainty.

Tt will be seen that the method adopted by the Victorian Railways
would eliminate those who have a high degree of hypermetropia; but
it may admit those suffering from choroiditis with contracted fields,
from glaucoma, and, in fact, any eye disease which is not obvious and
which has no lowered central form vision.

Stress need hardly be laid on the injustice perpetrated in allowing
anyone to enter a seafaring life, to spend some years in acquiring pro-
ficiency, and then subject him to a visual examination when he makes
his appearance for his first professional examination. The sensible
course is obviously to insist on a complete examination when the boy
first goes to sea.

Dry-Farming Investigations in the United States. By Lyman Ji:
Barieds, M:iS:, Ph.D:

[Pratre V.]

(Ordered, on behalf of the General Committee, to be printed in eatenso.)

Tur term ‘dry-farming’ is now generally applied to agricultural
practice in regions where rainfall is the primary limiting factor in
crop production. The determination of the tillage methods which are
most efficient in the storage and conservation of moisture, and the
development of varieties which are especially suited to dry-land con-
ditions, are economic problems worthy of the best efforts of the
agronomist. The most efficient methods are not always the most
profitable methods, for the margin of profit in dry-farming is normally
small, and the cost of tillage must always be compared with the
return. Efficiency in the use of the limited rainfall is, however, the
basis upon which dry-farming practice must be built.

Before taking up the discussion of dry-farming investigations in
the United States, a word regarding the organisation of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture in this connection may be of interest. Five
offices in the Bureau of Plant Industry are devoting a large part of
their energies to dry-farming problems. The Office of Dry-Land
Agriculture operates over a score of experimental farms in various
sections of the Great Plains. This office is concerned chiefly with the
determination of the crop rotations and tillage methods which are best
adapted to the various dry-farming sections. It was early recognised
in the development of this work that dry-farming problems are often
of an extremely local character, and that numerous experimental
stations are necessary to cover the field. Fach experimental farm is
superintended by a trained agriculturist, usually an agricultural college
graduate. These farms also afford experimental facilities for other
offices engaged in dry-farming problems. The offices of Cereal Investi-
gations, Forage Crop Investigations, and Alkali and Drought-Resistant
Plant Investigations are engaged in the investigations of crops suited to

264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

dry-land conditions ; while the Office of Biophysical Investigations, in co-
operation with the above-named offices, is concerned with the study
of the influence of various tillage methods on the absorption and reten-
tion of rainfall, the water requirement of crops under field conditions,
and the influence of climatic conditions on the growth of dry-land
crops. Over 50,0001. is now appropriated annually by Congress for
the support of the dry-land work. In addition to this, several of
the States are also conducting dry-farming investigations on an exten-
sive scale, either independently or in co-operation with the Govern-
ment. The field of investigation is so extensive that the present paper
will be confined largely to the biophysical phases of the work.

Dry-Farming Areas in the United States.

Two great dry-farming areas occur in the United States. One,
the Intermountain area, lies between the Rocky Mountains on the
east and the Sierra Nevada Mountains on the west. It is essen-
tially a region of winter and spring rainfall. The other, the Great
Plains area, extends from the Canadian boundary along the eastern
side of the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Mexican boundary, and
embraces over 200,000 square miles of land whose productivity is
limited by the rainfall. This area, in contrast to the other, is a
region of summer rainfall.

These two great areas differ greatly in their physiographic features
and in their native plant cover. The Intermountain district is broken
into numerous valleys, and the vegetation consists mainly of shrubby
perennial plants, such as the sage-brush (Artemisia tridentata)
(Plate V.) and a salt-bush (Atriplex confertifolia). The size and
character of this vegetation affords a good index of the productivity
of the land.'. The larger the sage-brush the greater the water-supply
and the better the farm. The soils occupied by salt-bush, on the other
hand, are apt to be so saline in character as to be unsuited to dry-
farming.

In the Great Plains no trees or shrubs are found except along
the water-courses, while the gently undulating, grass-covered plain
stretches unbroken to the horizon save for the buildings of the settlers.
Much of this country is covered with buffalo grass (Buchloé dacty-
loides) and grama grass (Boueteloua oligostachya) (Plate V.), while
farther to the east, where the rainfall is somewhat heavier, the taller
bunch grass (Andropogon scoparius) and wire grass (Aristida
longisela) make their appearance.? This striking difference in the
vegetation, characterised by the shrubby plants in the Intermountain
districts and by grasses on the plains, reflects the difference in the dis-
tribution of the annual rainfall, which has had a marked effect upon
the dry-farming development of the two sections.

1 “Tndicator Significance of Vegetation in Tooele Valley, Utah,’ Kearney, Briggs,
Shantz, McLane, and Piemeissel, Journal of Agricultural Research, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1, p. 365, 1914.

? Shantz, H. L., Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land
for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Bulletin 201, 1911.

British Association, 84th Report, Australia, 1914.] [PLATE V,

Showing the native sage-brush vegetation on virgin land in the Intermountain
district (above), and the short-grass vegetation of the virgin Great Plains
(below). The Intermountain district has a winter rainfall and the Great
Plains a summer rainfall. (Photographed by H. L. Shantz.)

Illustrating the Report on Dry-Farming Investigations in the

United States.
[To face page 264,

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 265

Rainfall.

Tt has become customary to use the average annual rainfall as a
measure of the relative value of different areas for dry-farming pur-
poses. Since the water-supply is usually the primary limiting factor,
the annual rainfall must of course be emphasised. All who are
engaged in dry-farming investigations recognise, however, the severe
limitations of this classification. The seasonal distribution and thie
character of the torrential or in the form of
numerous light showers, or occurring as steady,
more important than the total annual rainfall in determining the pro-
ductivity of a dry-farming region. The uncertainty of the rainfall
should also be considered whenever sufficient statistical evidence is
available.

FPACTFIC. INTERMOUNTAIN. | GREAT PLAIWVS:

DALLES, OREGON 3 8B/SMARCH, W.D.

UTI WW | eens aaa
1 F*URTOIAEUnTa*| | mp URURURTRTER TT
Me COME, |
Ee

I
|
I
SACRAMENTO, CAL
UU WUT
rT TE nua

LOS ANGELES, CAL. 4 PAROWAN, UTAH.

i HEE | | Hit

OGDEN, UTAH.

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4
3
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(4)

Fro. 1.—Chart showing the monthly distribution of the rainfall at representative
stations in the Great Plains, Intermountain, and Pacific coast regions. The
length of the black lines in each diagram represents the monthly precipitation
at that place, beginning with January on the left. The scale in inches given
on the right of each diagram can be used to find the actual amount of the
monthly rainfall. For example, the average monthly rainfall at Bismarck,
N. Dak., for June is seen to be 3} inches, while for July it is only a little more
than 2 inches. It will be noted that in the Pacific coast region the rain comes
principally at the beginning and end of the year, that is, in the winter; in the
Intermountain districts during the winter and spring months ; and in the Great
Plains during the summer months.

Rainfall is not the only factor of importance, however. We shall
refer later to the desirability of knowing the seasonal evaporation as
measured from freely exposed tanks, which affords a summation of
those factors which determine the rate of transpiration. The maximum
temperatures and the wind velocity are also important factors. For
an adequate comparison of widely separated dry-farming areas, a know-
ledge at least of the annual rainfall, its seasonal distribution, the

266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

seasonal evaporation, and the depth and character of the soil appears
to be indispensable.

Reference has already been made to the striking difference in the
monthly distribution of the rainfall in the Great Plains as compared
with the Intermountain districts. This difference is illustrated in
fig. 1, which shows the monthly distribution of rainfall. at repre-
sentative stations in each area. Three Pacific Slope stations with
a distinctly winter type of rainfall are also included. In this latter
region, owing to the mildness of the climate, an annual crop of wheat
is grown during the winter months either for grain or hay.

Grain-farming under the alternating fallow and cropping system
has been satisfactorily established in Utah, where the annual rainfall
is 13 inches or more. In the southern part of the State of Washing-
ton, where the conditions are unusually favourable, land with an
annual rainfall as low as 10 inches is used for growing winter wheat
by the summer-fallow method,* but the returns are uncertain. When
the annual rainfall is reduced to 8°5 inches the crop will barely return
the cost of production.

The rainfall required when the rain comes chiefly in the summer
is higher than for winter rainfall. This appears to be due to the
greater evaporation-loss from the fallow when wet frequently by
summer rains. In the Great Plains, where a summer rainfall prevails,
dry-farming is not successfully conducted on an annual rainfall less
than 14 inches, and this minimum is still higher in the southern part
of the area, due, as we shall see, to the higher rate of evaporation.

Evaporation.

The evaporation-rate may fairly be considered as ranking next in
importance to the annual rainfall in determining the dry-farming
possibilities of a region. The evaporation from a free-water surface
represents a summation of the intensity of solar radiation, temperature,
saturation-deficit, and wind velocity, all of which enter also into the
determination of the transpiration-rate of the growing crop, though
not necessarily in the same proportion as in free evaporation. Evyapora-
tion has been measured daily during the summer months at each of
the experimental farms located in the dry-farming sections. Tanks
6 or 8 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep are used, the tanks being
sunk in the ground to within four inches at the top. The free-water
surface is maintained at ground-level, i.e., about 4 inches from
the top of the tank. Observations are now available for seven years
at the stations first established. The observations are limited to
the six months from April to September inclusive, since freezing
weather is encountered at the stations during most of the remaining
months. The average seasonal (April to September inclusive) evapora-
tion in inches for each station, together with its location, is shown
on the accompanying map (fig. 2). The evaporation increases rapidly
as one proceeds southward in the Great Plains; the evaporation in
Northern Texas, for example, is 54 inches, compared with 31 inches

3 Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O., Dry Farming in relation to Rainfall and Hvapora-
tion, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 188, p. 25.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 267

*qaed U1eT}100
oY} UL AVY} 9014 ATIROU SI SUIeTT 7VOIK) OY} JO Javd UTEYNOS oy} UT UOVIOdeAD oy} UDA oq TIM 4 *(@ATSNTOUT
Taquiaideg 04 [rdy) syyuoM 1eWUINs XISs By} SuULIMp soyour ur uoYRIodvaSe oY} MOYS sommsy oyy, “suoMesysSoAUT
yeorshydorg Jo soQ oy Aq opet Suioq ore syuomMoMsvour uoMeIodeAS YoryA 4e suoRs SurMoys dey_—z “O17

268 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

in the central part of North Dakota. Such differences have a profound
influence upon the water-requirement of plants.

Shantz * has shown that under practically uniform soil conditions
a pure short-grass formation is found in Northern Texas with an
annual rainfall of about 21 inches; in Eastern Colorado with an
annual rainfall of about 17 inches; and in Montana with an annual
rainfall of approximately 14 inches. The region throughout has a
summer rainfall. The same plant formation then requires 50 per
cent. more rainfall in Northern Texas than in Montana. The explana-
tion of this is to be found in the difference in the evaporation-rate
in the two sections. Reference to fig. 2 will show that the evapora-
tion in Northern Texas is approximately 60 per cent. higher than in
Central Montana. A similar comparison between Northern Texas and
North-Eastern Colorado shows that short-grass requires about approx-
imately 27 per cent. more rainfall in Northern Texas, where the
evaporation is 23 per cent. higher than in North-Eastern Colorado.
The effectiveness of rainfall depends of course upon its penetration
iuto the soil, so that any relationship which may be developed
between evaporation and precipitation will necessarily be an approxi-
mate one. The above figures indicate, however, a rather close
parallelism between the evaporation and the rainfall required to
maintain a given plant formation, and emphasise the necessity of
knowing the evaporation as well as the rainfall in judging the dry-
farming possibilities of a region.®

A direct relationship between evaporation and water-requirement—
i.e., the pounds of water required by a plant in the production of a
pound of dry matter—is shown in the following measurements by
Briggs and Shantz of the water-requirement of the same strain of
alfalfa when grown in different parts of the Great Plains (Table I.).

TABLE I.— Water-requirement of Grimm alfalfa (second cutting) at different
Stations in the Great Plains, 1912.

} ] |
| Water-re- :
| | quirement | Evap.| Daily Set ef
Location | Growth period | Days |(toproduce| in | Evap. in Dak
1 lb. dry |inches; inches “nad
| | matter) P
| | | | Ab, 20x21 |
| Williston, N.D.. July 29-Sept. 16 47 518 12] 7-5 | 0-159 33 |
| Newell, S.D. .| Aug. 9Sept. 24, 46 630 8) 86 0-187 34
| Akron, Col. .| July 26-Sept. 6 42 | 853 13 9:5 | 0-226 38
Dalhart, Tex. .| July 26-Aug. 31| 36 | 1005 8/ 110 | 0306 | 34 |
{ Ward 2 |! / | |

Tt will be seen that the water-requirement increases steadily as
one proceeds southward through the Great Plains, being twice as
great in Northern Texas as in North Dakota, The daily evaporation

4 Shantz, H. L., Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land
for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Bulletin 201, 1911, p. 12.

nee L. J., and Belz, J. O., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 188, 1911,
Pp: .

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 269

also increases in a corresponding manner, so that the ratio of the
water-requirement to the daily evaporation is approximately constant.
Montgomery and Kiesselbach* have shown that maize grown in a
dry house and in a humid house varied in its water-requirement
exactly in proportion to the relative evaporation-rates in the two
houses.

The water-requirement is not, however, always proportional to the
evaporation. Other factors such as temperature may have a profound
influence in determining the development of the plant. This may be
illustrated by comparing the water-requirement of wheat and sorghum
in Colorado and in Northern Texas (Table II.).?_ When the difference
in evaporation is considered, sorghum is seen to have made a more
efficient use of its water-supply in Texas than in Colorado, while the
reverse is true in the case of wheat.

TasLE II.—Comparison of the Relative Evaporation and of the Relative
Water-requirement in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911.

Akron, Colo. .' 1910 | wheat | April 18-Aug. 2 | 27:7 | 100 664 | 100
Amarillo, Tex. April 5—July 19 | 34:0 | 122 | 853 128

Akron, Colo. .' 1910 sorghum | May 25-Sept. 28] 33:0 | 100 356 | 100
Amarillo, Tex. May 10-Aug. 28 | 37:7 | 114 | 359 | 101)

Akron, Colo. .| 1911 | wheat | May 13-Aug. 2] 248 100 | 468 | 100
Dalhart, Tex. . April 25—-July 18 | 28-5 | 115 | 673 | 148

Akron, Colo. .}| 1911 |sorghum | May 12-Sept. 4] 35:0 | 100 | 298 | 100
Dalhart, Tex. . May 14-Sept. 12] 41:9 | 120 | 313 | 105

Influence of the Distribution of Rainfall on Farm Practice.

The different distribution of the rainfall in the Intermountain district
and the Great Plains has led to interesting differences in the farm
practice of these regions.

Spring wheat is not a successful crop in the Intermountain district
for two reasons: (1) The land cannot be fitted for sowing until late in
the season, owing to the spring rains; and (2) the driest part of the
season occurs when the spring wheat crop is maturing. A large acreage
of winter wheat is, however, grown. In fact, the dry-farming activities
of this section are devoted almost wholly to the growing of winter wheat.
The stubble is. not usually ploughed until spring, the land being very
dry and hard in the fall. The stubble also keeps the winter snows from
drifting and thus holds the precipitation on the land. As soon as the

8 Studies in the Water-requirement of Corn, Nebraska Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bulletin 128, 1912.

7 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L., Water-requirement of Plants, I., U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 284. p. 45

270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

spring rains have ceased, the stubble and the early growth of weeds
are turnedunder, and the land is kept fallow until the following
autumn. The low rainfall during the summer makes it possible to
destroy the weed-growth and maintain an efficient surface-mulch at
a comparatively low cost. In the autumn, wheat is again sown. The
crop makes a good part of its growth while the temperature is cool
and the evaporation low, and in addition to the stored moisture has the
advantage of the seasonal precipitation during its growth period.

One serious difficulty in dry-farming operations in regions of winter
rainfall occurs in connection with the seeding of winter wheat on fallow
land. The surface-mulch of the fallow is often dust-dry in the fall to
a depth of 4 inches or more. If the farmer drills his grain in the
dust, the seed remains inert until a rain occurs. If the first rain is
insufficient in amount to soak through the dry mulch to the damp soil
below, the seeds germinate, but the rootlets of the seedling plants do
not reach the stored moisture below the intervening dry layer, and the
plants soon die. On this account, farmers usually wait for fall rains
before sowing wheat. If the seeding is thereby delayed until late in
the fall, and freezing weather follows, the young plants are injured and
weakened. And if this is followed by an ‘ open winter,’ so that the
wheat plants are not protected by a covering of snow, ‘ winter killing’
is often very severe, and the crop is practically a failure.

Drilling the wheat to a depth sufficient to place the seed in moist
soil would appear to be a possible solution of this problem, but this is
often found impracticable, and the seedling plants have great difficulty
in forcing their leaves to the surface. It is possible that a solution of
the difficulty may be found in a seed-drill which has recently been
developed, which throws the dry surface-soil in ridges, and plants the
grain in moist soil at moderate depths in the intervening furrows. This
plan is not practicable in windy regions, for the furrows would soon
fill with dry soil.

In striking contrast with Intermountain practice, spring wheat is
grown extensively in the Great Plains, especially in the central and
northern part. The spring-sown crop escapes the dry fall and all
danger from winter-killing, while the land, having been recently
worked, is in better condition to absorb the summer rainfall. Inter-
tilled crops are also grown to a much greater extent than in the
Intermountain district, maize being especially popular in the northern
part of the Great Plains, and the non-saccharine sorghums (milo, kafir,
sorgo) in the southern part. The intertilled crop has in many sections
largely taken the place of fallow, spring wheat now being extensively
grown on disked corn-land.

Fallow.is used extensively in the Great Plains, but the experiments
by the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture, under the direction of E. C.
Chilcott,’ have shown that alternate cropping and summer tillage in
many sections is less profitable than simple three-year rotations,
especially those in which spring wheat is grown on disked corn-land, and
even less profitable than continuous cropping. Summer tillage is not

8 A Study of Crop Rotations and Cultivation Methods for the Great Plains Area,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 187, p. 8, 1910.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 271

so well adapted to a summer rainfall as to a winter precipitation, for the
summer rains repeatedly pack the mulch, which necessitates frequent
cultivation to keep the land in a receptive condition and to destroy
the weeds which spring up after each rain. Summer tillage, however,
affords some insurance against total loss of a crop during a dry season,
which means disaster to the farmer with work-animals and cows to feed,
and this element of insurance will doubtless always be a factor with
the small farmer, even if summer tillage does not give the greatest
returns.

Owing to the frequent high winds in the Plains, the blowing of the
mulch on summer-tilled land sometimes becomes a serious problem.
It is highly important in fallowing the Plains to keep the surface of
the soil in a rough condition; in other words, to maintain a clod-mulch
on the fallow rather than a dust-mulch, a practice which is also
advantageous in the absorption of rainfall. On lands subject to
blowing, the practice of cultivating in strips is sometimes followed.
The strips are laid out at right angles to the prevailing winds, and
alternating strips are planted to grain or an intertilled crop. Jardine ®
has recently emphasised the value of the lister in checking blowing in
extreme cases. This implement opens a broad shallow furrow,
throwing the dirt on both sides. Groups of two or three furrows each
are listed at distances of from five to twenty rods across the field at
right angles to the wind. The lister tends to form clods, while the
disk harrow, except in moist ground, tends to pulverise the soil, and
this must always be avoided in soils subject to blowing.

Depth of Root System in relation to Storage of Soil Moisture.

The great depth to which the roots of many of our cultivated
plants extend has a very important bearing on the practicability of
storing moisture in the soil. Burr’? has found that oats, spring
wheat, barley, and corn growing on the loess soils of Hastern Nebraska
use the water to a depth of 4 feet or more, while winter wheat
feeds.to a depth of 6 or 7 feet. Excavations. made in winter-
wheat plats in Utah showed the root system to extend to a depth of
7 feet.**

In a soil which can store 6 per cent. of ‘ growth water,’ there
would be available in a section 6 feet in depth 600 tons of water
per acre, or enough for the production of thirteen bushels of wheat
in the central Great Plains. For a root penetration of 4 feet, this
amount would be reduced approximately one-third.

When the system of alternate cropping and fallowing is employed,
water seldom moves below the zone occupied by the roots of the
wheat plant. This has taken place, however, at the Dickinson experi-
mental farm in western North Dakota. The water which moves below
the feeding zone is practically lost to the plant, and remains undisturbed

9 Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 5, 213, 1913.

10 Research Bulletin No. 5, Nebraska Experiment Station, 1914.

1 Merrill, Bulletin 112, Utah Experiment Station, 1910.

™ Briggs and Shantz, ‘Relative Water-requirement of Plants,’ Jour. Agri-
cultural Rescarch, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 3, 1, 1914.

272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

from year to year. An argument often advanced in favour of deep
ploughing is that the depth of root penetration is thereby increased.
The futility of this argument so far as dry-farm soils are concerned
becomes evident when it is realised that the normal penetration of roots
in the Intermountain and Great Plains soils is far below any depth
that could possibly be reached with the plough. Deep ploughing may
possibly increase the absorption-rate of rainfall when the precipitation-
rate is so high as to saturate the surface soil temporarily, but this effect
can also be secured by leaving the surface rough and corrugated when
cultivating. Many of the field tests of the Office of Dry-Land Agricul-
ture have failed to show any increase in yield from deep ploughing,
an operation which means an added expense to an industry in which
economy in labour must be rigidly exercised to show a reasonable
profit.
Loss of Water from Weeds.

A relatively small proportion of the total annual rainfall is con-
served in the fallow. The maximum quantity of stored moisture
available for the crop seldom exceeds 4 inches of rainfall in section’
where the annual rainfall ranges from 13 to 18 inches.
This low efficiency is due in part to loss from run-off, but mainly to
surface evaporation and to loss through the transpiration of weeds.
Numerous measurements have shown that a rainfall of less than one-
half-inch does not contribute to the permanent store of moisture in
the soil unless the surface soil is already wet from previous rains.
If the rainfall penetrates the soil below a depth of 6 inches, its rate
of loss due to evaporation is low. But if the fallow is weedy, the
stored water is lost through the transpiration of the plants almost as
rapidly as if the moist subsoil were freely exposed to the air. The
water-requirement of weeds is fully as high as some of our most
valuable crop plants. For example, pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus),
tumble-weed (Amaranthus grecizans), and Russian thistle (Salsola
pestifer) have a water requirement as high as the millets and sorghums,
while sunflower (Helianthus petiolarus) and lamb’s quarters (Chene-
podium album) rank higher than many of the legumes.1* The dry-
farmer can, therefore, produce a valuable forage or grain crop with
no greater expenditure of water per pound of dry matter than is lost
through the weeds on his fallow.

Determinations by W. W. Burr? in Nebraska, R. W. Edwards 1°
and J. G. Lill!® in Kansas, and C. B. Burmeister 1° in Texas, all
unite in showing that the evaporation loss from land from which the
weeds are sliced off with a hoe is but little greater than from culti-
vated plants. In other words, cultivation is effective in conserving
water mainly through the destruction of weeds rather than in the re-
duction of surface evaporation. This is well illustrated by Lill’s
measurements at Garden City, Kansas, as shown in fig 3. The

18 Briggs and Shantz, Jour. Agricultural Research, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, 8, 60, 1914.

14 Research Bulletin No. 5, Nebraska Experiment Station, p. 61, 1914. In co-
operation with the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture and Biophysica] Investigations.

1 Office of Dry-Land Agriculture in co operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations.

273

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.

=
Ni

Peoe Begavev usw age gaune

*, while the

at in comparison with a plat the surface
It will be seen that the mulched plat

depth of 3 feet.

of which has been scraped with a hoe to cut the weeds, and with a plat on

which the weeds were allowed to grow.
and the scraped plat differ little in effectiveness in conserving water

weeds reduce the moisture content to a

Fig. 3.—Loss of moisture from a mulched p
1914.

974 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

moisture content of the mulched plat did not differ markedly from the
plat on which the weeds were kept sliced off with a sharp hoe; while
the plat on which the weeds were allowed to grow was dried out to
a depth of 3 feet.

A striking example of the loss of moisture from weeds is also
shown in experiments by P. V. Cardon, conducted at Nephi, Utah.'®
Winter wheat was grown on four plats by the summer fallow system,
one-half the plats being in wheat each year. Two plats were fall-
ploughed each year, and during the following summer, one plat was
cultivated to destroy the weeds, while the other was left untouched
except to clip the weeds in time to prevent the seeds maturing. In
the autumn both plats were sown to winter wheat. The experiment
was conducted for four years, and during this time the yield from the
cultivated plat averaged four bushels more per acre than from the
weedy plat.

The loss of moisture in these plats as the season advanced, due to
the demand made by the weeds, is illustrated in the accompanying
graphs, fig. 4. That this loss is primarily due to the weed cover and
not to direct evaporation is supported by the fact that in other experi-
ments at this station spring-ploughed uncultivated fallow on which the
weed-growth was slight was practically as effective as cultivated fallow
in conserving moisture. The average moisture content (6 feet in
depth) of the weedy Nephi plat was at the time of the spring sampling
0°8 per cent. below the cultivated plat, and at the time of the Fall
sampling 4°5 per cent. below the cultivated plat. This loss in moisture
during the summer is equivalent to 3°5 inches of rainfall stored in the
soll. This amount of water is sufficient, according to the water-
requirement measurements of Briggs and Shantz,!7 to produce ten
bushels of wheat per acre at Akron, Colorado, where the evaporation is
the same as at Nephi. In 1911 the actual increase in yield of the
cultivated plat over the weedy plat was eleven bushels per acre.
During the other years the yield was reduced by winter killing, so that
the water-supply was not the primary factor in determining production.
Surely no more convincing proof is needed of the necessity of keeping
fallow land free from weeds in regions where the moisture supply is
of primary importance.

Growth-water.

It has long been known that a part of the soil-moisture is held so
tenaciously that it is not available for the growth of plants. Sachs
in 1859 appears to have been the first to recognise that the percentage
of non-available moisture varies greatly with the type of soil. This is
# matter of fundamental importance in the interpretation of soil-
moisture observations, for the water unavailable for growth ranges
from 1 per cent. or less in sand to 80 per cent. or more in the heaviest

16 Office of Cereal Investigations in Co-operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations. See Tillage and Rotation Experiments at the Nephi sub-station, Utah,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 157, 1914.

VW Briggs, L. J.,and Shantz, H. L., ‘Relative Water-requirement of Plants,’ Journal
of Agricultural Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 8, 1, 1914.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 275

— CULTNATED.
---- NOT CULTIVATED-WEEDY.

ON TANS DNie71eaS

“LIFTS NI HLATTI
‘OM TINGS YSIS

‘OM TAINS 77 e/

ee nee ae gat: day AMA ea | oY, Re
PER CENT Of MOISTURE IN SOIL.

Nic. 4.—-Loss of water from cultivated and weedy plats at Nephi, Utah, as the
season advances.

276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

types of clay.18 Obviously, then, the percentage of water in the soil
that is available for the growth of plants, or the ‘ growth-water’ as
Fuller 3° hag termed it, cannot be determined until this unavailable
residue is known.

Alway ?° has used the hygroscopic coefficient, i.e., the percentage
amount of water that a dry soil absorbs on exposure to a saturated
atmosphere, to represent the unavailable portion. Briggs and Shantz **
have measured the moisture-content at which plants undergo permanent
wilting when growing in a limited soil mass, protected from surface
evaporation. By permanent wilting is meant a condition from which
the plants cannot recover when exposed to a saturated atmosphere.*?
The percentage of moisture remaining in the soil under such conditions
has been termed the ‘ wilting coefficient’ of that particular soil, and
has been found to vary slightly with the kind of plant used as an indt-
cator. The ‘ wilting coefficient ’ in connection with a total moisture
determination provides a means for calculating the ‘ growth-water,’
the latter being the surplus above the wilting coefficient. By the aid
of such determinations it is possible to calculate the amount of stored
erowth-water—the bank-balance, so to speak, in the water account,
against which the crop may draw.

It is not necessary always to measure the wilting coefficient directly,
since it can be calculated from other physical properties of soils that
can be more readily measured. ‘Thus the moisture equivalent, hygro-
scopic coefficient, and mechanical composition have all been shown
to bear a linear relationship to the wilting coefficient.2* Of these
indirect methods, that based on the moisture equivalent 74 is the most
rapid and satisfactory. The latter represents the percentage of moisture
remaining in the soil when brought into equilibrium with a centrifugal
force 1,000 times that of gravity. The wilting coefficient is approxi-
mately one-half the moisture equivalent.

Where a small grain-crop has extended its root-system to a depth
of 4 feet or more, the moisture-content of the second and third feet
is sometimes reduced below the wilting coefficient. This is practically
sure to occur if the crop is suffering for water, for plants are able to
reduce the moisture-content far below the wilting coefficient while in a
wilted condition, or during the ripening process. But it appears also
to take place while the crop is still growing, provided the root-system
is in contact with growth-water in some other part of the soil mass.?°

18 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L., The Wilting Coefficient yor Different Plants and
its Indirect Determination, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bulletin 230, 1912, pp. 56-59.

19 Botanical Gazette, 58, p. 513, 1912.

20 Journal of Agricultural Science, 2, 1908, p. 334. 21 Op. cit.

22 As the plant approaches a wilted condition its transpiration is reduced. Further-
more, aS soon as wilting occurs it is necessary to transfer the plant to a saturated
atmosphere, in order to determine whether the observed wilting is temporary or per-
manent. Consequently during the final stages of a wilting coefficient determination
the transpiration rate is greatly reduced.

°3 Briggs and Shantz, op. cit.

4 Briggs and McLane, Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 2, 1910, p. 138.

» Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L., ‘Application of Wilting Coefficient Determi-
nations to Agronomic Investigations,’ Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 8, 1911, p. 250.

277

STATES.

UNITED

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE

Akron, COLORADO, 1912.

Fatuow.

AKron, CoLoRADO, 1911.

Spring WuuEAt.

ET AEA AE HT

STU ALE
HUE TEV AT UMD MHBBEER HT ONTEOCUHUUOENLSHETUETE
BINT NTT

MWM~SBYSRRL IS OGSRK LSM ORFSRILLHO FRA ALLO BFRRLL oO“ As eeesee

ar ee ee ee
S % : ”

CE OTOH HUE

[MAY LJUNE | SULY |

g wheat and fallow plats at Akron, Colorado,

The dotted lines represent the wilting ccefficient for

to a depth of 6 feet.

Fig. 5.—Moisture conditicns in sprin
each foot-section.

ished the

oot-system is already establi

ure-content below the wiltin

the r
pplement the growth

where
crop is able to reduce the moist
and can use this to su

In other words,
from lower levels.

g coefficient,

-water that it 1s drawin

ley
to}

(See fig. 5, 1911.) On the other hand, crop-plants

278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1914.

show no tendency to send new roots into soil in which the moisture-
content is reduced to the wilting coefficient. (See fig. 6, 1911.)

An example of the application of the wilting coefficient to the inter-
pretation of moisture determinations is shown in the accompanying
measurements by W. M. Osborne *° at Akron, Colorado (fig. 5). The
change in moisture during the season in each foot-section to a depth of
6 feet is shown graphically by the solid lines. The dotted lines
represent the wilting coefficient for each foot-section. The first chart
(1911) represents the moisture conditions under a crop of spring wheat
during a dry season, the crop being practically a failure. It will be
seen that in the spring there was available moisture in small amounts
to a depth of 6 feet, the greater part being in the upper 3 feet.
The crop had removed the growth-water from the first foot by June 1;
from the second and third feet by June 15; from the fourth foot by
July 15; while the fifth and sixth feet still contained a limited amount
of growth-water at harvest time, although the moisture had been
reduced in each case.

The second chart (1912) shows the moisture conditions in the

same plat during the next summer while the land was in fallow. At
the time the spring samples were taken the moisture-content of the
surface foot of soil was practically up to the field-carrying capacity of
this soil. With the advent of the seasonal rains the surface foot began
to deliver to the section below. It will be noted that the change in
moisture-content does not take place simultaneously through the soil-
mass, but is progressive from foot to foot, each section delivering water
to the section below as it rises to its field-carrying capacity. When
the moisture supply is below a certain percentage, dependent upon
the soil in question, capillary adjustment in that soil is very slow.
_Plants in order to avail themselves of all the growth-water must
consequently develop a root-system which permeates the soil-mass
from which water is being drawn. In other words, when the moisture
supply is limited the capillary distribution becomes so slow as to be
effective only through very small distances. Plants having a coarse
root-system, such as maize, when used as indicator-plants, might be
expected to give a somewhat higher wilting coefficient than plants
with fine root-systems like the small grains, and this has been observed
to be the case.??

The first chart in fig. 6 represents the moisture conditions as
measured by J. C. Thysell?* in a barley plat at Dickinson, North
Dakota, during the dry season of 1911. This plat is normally seeded
to barley each year. Inspection of the chart will show that at the
beginning of the season the moisture-content of the second and third
feet was at the wilting coefficient, to which it had been reduced by
the preceding crop. A good supply of growth-water was present in
the fourth, fifth, and sixth feet of the soil, but the roots were unable

6 Office of Dry-Land Agriculture in Co-operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations.

27 Briggs and Shantz, op. cit.

8 Office of Dry-Land Agriculture in Co-operation with the Office of Biophysical
Investigations.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 279

Bartery. Dickson, N.D., 1911. BarueEy. DrcKrson, N.D., 1913.

ds)
iS
i)
Gy
Rh
.

| 4PR. | Azar | JULY

Fic. 6.—Moisture conditions in a barley plat at Dickinson, North Dakota. The
dotted lines represent the wilting coefficient for each foot-section.

to penetrate the intervening dry layer, and the crop was a failure.
In 1912 the crop was destroyed by hail, so that the plat was virtually
in fallow during this season. The rainfall in 1912 was ample and the
soil was well supplied with water in the spring of 1913, as shown
in the second part of the chart. During this year a heavy crop of
barley was grown, which was produced in part with water present in

280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF

the soil in 1911, but unavailable to the 1911 crop because the inter
vening soil was reduced to the wilting coefficient before the root
system was established. It would be difficult to interpret these
moisture conditions without the aid of the wilting coefficient determina-
tions, especially where the moisture-retentivity of the soil and sub-
soil is not the same, as in the case of the Dickinson soils.

The growth-water content at seedtime and harvest in two plats at
Akron, Colorado, is shown graphically in fig. 7 for six years. These
plats form part of the cultural experiments of the Office of Dry-Land
Agriculture, and are continuously cropped to spring wheat, A being
spring -ploughed and B fall-ploughed. The width of the shaded
portion in each foot-section shows the amount of growth-water. . It
will be noted that the growth-water was in every instance practically
exhausted at harvest-time, with the exception of the surface-foot, which
in some instances had been moistened by rains near the harvest
period. It also appears that at this station the time of ploughing has
little influence on the soil moisture-content.

Maintenance of the Fertility of the Dry-Farm.

The maintenance of fertility under a system of continuous grain-
farming, such as is practised in many dry-farming sections, bids fair
to become a more and more serious problem as the years advance.
‘The period of cultivation of much of the dry-farm land has been so
short as to afford no information on this point. In any event, it 1s
hardly a problem that can be taken up with the man who breaks the
virgin land. His first concern is for bread, and his chief desire is to
draw upon the resources of his land to its fullest capacity. It is only
after a marked decrease in production has occurred that he will listen
to measures designed to maintain the fertility of the soil. Happily,
grain-farming as ‘practised on some of the oldest dry-farms in Utah
does not yet appear to have diminished the productiveness of the soil.
This is doubtless due in part at least to the fact that the wheat has
been cut with a header (or more recently with a combined harvester),
which leaves most of the straw on the land. Stewart and Hirst *°
have found that the humus and nitrogen content of the surface soil of
the wheat lands farmed for ten years or more has not fallen below
that of adjacent virgin soils. In an earlier investigation, Stewart °°
found that the oldest wheat lands in Utah, under cultivation for fourteen
to forty-one years, either continuously or by summer-fallowing methods,
had showed no loss in humus or nitrogen in the surface-foot. The second
foot of the cultivated soils showed, however, a slightly lower nitrogen-
content than the virgin land. The yield also appears to have been
maintained.

A wanton waste of organic matter occurs in many dry-farming
sections in the northern Great Plains and in California. The stubble
is burned to make the ploughing easier and to destroy weed-seeds, and
the straw-stacks are burned in the field because they are in the path
of the ploughs. As the ploughing-season approaches, the horizon is

29 Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 6, 49, 1914.
°0 Utah Experiment Station, Bulletin 109, 1910.

ON DRY-FARMING INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 281]

often lighted at night in every direction by the flames of the burning
stacks. Even where the straw alone has been removed, grain-farming
in the Great Plains has resulted in a marked decrease in the nitrogen
and humus of the soil. Alway*! has shown that the cultivation of
the loess soils of Nebraska has been accompanied by a marked re-
duction in nitrates, total organic matter, and humus. He attributes

AVAILABLE SPRING AND Harvest Morsturr CONTENT. AKRON, COLORADO.

Dateof 1908 1909 1909 1910 1910 191) (91 1911 1912 1912 1912 1913 1913
Sompling g.27 4-7 8-25 3-17 710 4-8 6§-15 10-30 4-9 8-7 10-29 45 724

2
3
“SS
a4

Fie. 7.—Growth-water at seed-time and harvest in spring-ploughed (A) and fall-
ploughed (B) plats continuously cropped to grain.

PLAT A
a ww & ~@ mm f=

the greatest loss of these components to the washing or blowing away
of the surface soil. :
Snyder *? found that the loss of nitrogen from four Minnesota
grain-farms in ten years was from four to six times that removed
by the crops. This loss he attributes to the rapid breaking-up of the

*! Bulletin 111, Nebraska Experiment Station, 1909.
* Bulletin 94, Minnesota Experiment Station, 1906.

282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1914.

humus under cultivation. Where legumes were grown, crop-rotations
practised, live-stock kept, and the farm-manure used, the nitrogen
content of the soil was maintained. This practice the dry- farmer of the
Great Plains must eventually adopt as far as his conditions will permit,
if a permanent agriculture is to be assured in these sections. The
American dry- farmer has much to learn from Australian practice in
the use of stock, especially sheep, on the dry-farm.

The Water-requirement of Different Dry-Farm Crops.

A word must be said in regard to the importance of considering
the water-requirement of crops grown on the dry-farm. Other things
being equal, those crops which are most efficient in the use of water
are obviously best adapted to dry-land conditions. The great success
of millet, sorghum, and maize in American dry-farming is due in part
at least to their remarkable efficiency in the use of w ater. ‘The amount
of water required for the production of a pound of dry matter of some
strains of alfalfa is four times that required by millet, where the two
crops are growing side by side. Different varieties of the same crop
often exhibit wide differences in water-requirement. The following
figures represent the range in water-requirement due to varietal differ
ences as measured by Briggs and Shantz ** in the Great Plains.

Taste IIT.— Varietal Range in the Water- pr urn ai different Crops.

| Pea water requir oa to pr wae one pound of ay Vy
i matter of the
Crop | Al
| Most efficient variety | Least efficient variety
| lb. oz. Ib. 02.
Millet ; ; : . 261 15 | 444 9
Proso 4 ‘ ; A 268 1 | 341 10
Sorghuny eo. mee 285 3 467 9
Maize ; : ; : 315 3 413 ~ 5
Wheat ; ; , : 473 8 5594
13 Pia Gees Some mene Sica Be 502. 4 578 13
Oats . ; ‘ A eas | 559 «8 622 9
Clover ‘ é : a 7389 9 805 8
Alfalfa : 3 : i 651 12 963 9

These wide crop and varietal differences in water-requirement
suggest great possibilities in the development of strains for dry-land
conditions. In fact, the measurement of the water-requirement affords
a novel and promising method of attack in the breeding and selection
of dry-land crops.

3 Jour. Agricultural Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 3, 58, 1914.

TRANSACTIONS OF ‘THE SECTIONS.

‘

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT “OF THE SECTION:
Professor F. T. Trouton, M.A., Sce.D., F.B.S.

MELBOURNE.

VRIDAY, AUGUST 14.

In the absence of the President, his Address was read by Professor
A. W. Porter, F.R.S. :—

We have lost since the last meeting of the Section several distinguished members
who have in the past added so much to the usefulness of our discussions. These
include Sir Robert Ball, who was one of our oldest attendants, and was President
of the Section at the Manchester Meeting in 1887; Professor Poynting, who was
President of the Section at Dover in 1899; and Sir David Gill, who was
President of the Association. at Leicester in 1907.

It seems appropriate at this meeting in the City of Melbourne to mention one
who passed away from his scientific labours somewhat previous to the last meet-
ing. I allude to W. Sutherland of ‘this city, whose writings have thrown so
much light on Molecular Physics and whose scientific perspicacity was only
equalled by his modesty.

This meeting of the British Association will be a memorable one as being
indicative, as it were, of the scientific coming of age of Australia. Not that the
maturity of Australian science was unknown to those best able to judge; indeed
the fact could not but be known abroad, for in England alone there are many
workers in science hailing from Australia and New Zealand, who have enhanced
science with their investigations and who hold many important scientific posts
in that country. In short, one finds it best nowadays to ask of any young
investigator if he comes from the Antipodes.

This speaks well for the Universities and their staffs, who have so successfully
set the example of scientific investigation to their pupils.

Radio-activity and kindred phenomena seem to have attracted them most of
late years, and it would perhaps have been appropriate to have shortly reviewed
in this address our knowledge in these subjects, to which the sons of Australasia
have so largely contributed.

Twenty-five years ago FitzGerald and others were speculating on the possi-
bility of unlocking and utilising the internal energy of the atom. Then came the
epoch-making discovery of Becquerel, to be followed by the brilliant work of
Rutherford and others showing us that no key was required to unlock this
energy—the door lay open.

We have still facing us the analogous case of a hitherto untapped source of
energy arising from our motion through the ether. All attempts, it is true, to
realise this have failed, but nevertheless he would be a brave prophet who would

286 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

deny the possibility of tapping this energy despite the ingenious theories of
relativity which have been put forward to explain matters away. There is no
doubt but that up to the present nothing hopeful has been accomplished towards
reaching this energy and there are grave difficulties in the way; but ‘Relativity ’
is, as it were, merely trying to remove the lion in the path by laying down the
general proposition that the existence of lions is an impossibility. The readiness
with which the fundamental hypothesés of ‘ Relativity ’ were accepted by many
is characteristic of present-day Physics, or perhaps, more correctly speaking,
is an exaggerated example of it.

Such an acceptance as this could hardly be thought of as taking place half-a-
century ago, when a purely dynamical basis was expected for the full explanation
of all phenomena, and when facts were only held to be completely understood if
amenable to such treatment; while, if not so, they were put temporarily into
a kind of suspense account, waiting the time when the phenomenon would
succumb to treatment based on dynamics.

Many things, perhaps not the least among them radio-activity, have conspired
to change all this and to produce an attitude of mind prepared to be content with
a much less rigid basis than would have been required by the Natural Philo-
sophers of a past generation. These were the sturdy Protestants of Science, to
use an analogy, while we of the present day are much more catholic in our
scientific beliefs, and in fact it would seem that nowadays to be used to anything
is synonymous with understanding it.

Leaving, however, these interesting questions, I will confine my remarks to a
rather neglected corner of physics, namely, to the phenomena of Absorption and
Adsorption of solutions. ‘The term Adsorption was introduced to distinguish
between Absorption which takes place throughout the mass of the absorbing
material and those cases in which it takes place only over its surface. If, for
instance, glass, powdered so as to provide a large surface, is introduced into a
solution of a salt in water, we have in general some of the salt leaving the body
of the solution and adhering in one form or other to the surface of the glass. It
is to this the term Adsorption has been applied. Physicists have now begun to
take up the question seriously, but it was to Biologists, and especially Physio-
logical Chemists, that most of our knowledge of the subject in the past was due,
the phenomenon being particularly attractive to them, seeing that so many of the
processes they are interested in take place across surfaces.

As far as investigations already made go the laws of Adsorption appear to be
very complicated, and no doubt many of the conflicting experimental results
which have been obtained are in part due to this, workers under somewhat
different conditions obtaining apparently contradictory effects.

On the whole, however, it may be said that the amount adsorbed increases
with the strength of solution according to a simple power law, and diminishes
with rise of temperature; but there are many exceptions to these simple rules.
For instance, in the case of certain sulphates and nitrates the amount adsorbed
by the surface of, say, precipitated silica only increases up to a certain critical
point as the strength of the solution is increased. Then further increase in the
strength of the solution causes the surface to give up some of the salt it has
already adsorbed, or the amount adsorbed is actually less now than that adsorbed
from weaker solutions. Beyond this stage for still greater concentrations of the
solutions the amount adsorbed goes on increasing as before the critical point was
reached.

There is some reason for thinking that there are two modes in which the salt
is taken up or adsorbed by the solid surface. The first of them results from a
simple strengthening of the solution in the surface layers; the second, which
takes place with rather stronger concentrations, is a deposition in what is
apparently analogous to the solid form. It would seem that the first reaches out
from the solid surface to about 10-8 cm.—which is the order of the range of
attraction of the particles of the solid substance.

The cause of the diminution in the adsorption layer at a certain critical value
of the concentration is difficult to understand. Something analogous has been
observed by Lord Rayleigh in the thickness of layers of oil floating on the surface
of water. As oil is supplied the thickness goes on increasing up to a certain
point ; beyond this, on further addition of oil, the layer thins itself at some

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 287

places and becomes much thicker at others, intermediate thicknesses to these
being apparently unstable and unable to exist. As helping towards an explana-
tion of the diminution in the adsorption layer, we may suppose that as the
strength of the solution is increased from zero, the adsorption is at first merely
an increased density of the solution in the surface layer. For some reason,
after this has reached a certain limit, further addition of salt to the solution
renders this mode of composition of the surface layers unstable, and there is a
breaking up of the arrangement of the layer with a diminution in its amount.
We may now suppose the second mode of deposition to begin to show its effect
with a recovery in the amount of the surface layers and a further building up of
the adsorption deposits.

On account of passing through this point of instability the process is
irreversible, so that the application of thermo-dynamics to the phenomenon of
adsorption is necessarily greatly restricted in its usefulness.

A possible cause of the instability in the adsorption layer which occurs at
the critical point may be looked for in the alternations in the sign of the mutual
forces between attracting particles of the kind suggested by Lord Kelvin and
others. Within a certain distance apart—the molecular range—the particles of
matter mutually attract one another, while at very close distances they obviously
must repel, for two particles refuse to occupy the same space. At some inter-
mediate distances the force must pass through zero value. It has for various
reasons been thought that, in addition, the force has zero value at a second dis-
tance lying between the first zero and the molecular range, with accompanying
alternations in the sign of the force. Thus, starting from zero distance apart
of the particles, the sign of the force is negative or repulsive; then, as the dis-
tance apart is supposed to increase, the force of repulsion diminishes, and after
passing through zero value becomes positive or attractive; next, as the distance
is increased the force diminishes again, and after passing through a second zero
becomes negative for a second time; finally, the force on passing through a third
zero becomes positive, and is then in the stage dealt with in capillary and other
questions,

As an instance of where these alternations of sign seem to be manifest, may
be mentioned the case of certain crystals when split along cleavage planes. The
split often runs along further than the position of the splitting instrument or
inserted wedge seems to warrant. This would occur if the particles on either
side of the cleavage plane were situated at the distance apart where the force
between them was in the first attractive condition, for then, on increasing the
distance between the particles by means of the wedge, the force changes sign and
becomes repulsive, thus helping the splitting to be propagated further out.

Assuming that a repulsive force can supervene between the particles in the
adsorption layer, through the particles becoming so crowded in places as to
reduce their mutual distances to the stage when repulsion sets in, we might
expect that an instability would be set up.

As already stated, a rise in temperature reduces in general the amount
adsorbed, but below the critical point the nitrates and sulphates are exceptional,
for rise in temperature here increases the amount adsorbed from a given solution.
This obviously necessitates that the isothermals cross one another at the critical
point in an Adsorption-Concentration diagram. This may perhaps account for
some observers finding that adsorption did not change with temperature. We
have another exception to the simple laws of adsorption in the case of the alkali
chlorides; this exception occurs under certain conditions of temperature and
strength of solution. The normal condensation into the surface layer is reversed
and the salt is repelled into the general solution instead of being attracted by
the surface. In other words, it is the turn of the other constituent of the
solution, namely, the water, to be adsorbed.

It is a very well known experiment in adsorption to run a solution such as
that of permanganate of potash through a filter of sand, or, better, one of
precipitated silica, so as to provide a very large surface. The first of the solution
to come through the filter has practically lost all its salt owing to having been
adsorbed by the surface of the sand.

I was interested in finding a few months ago that Defoe, the author of
‘ Robinson Crusoe,’ in one of his other books, depicts a party of African travellers

288 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

as being saved from thirst in a place where the water was charged with alkali
by filtering the water through bags of sand. Whether this is a practical thing
or not is doubtful, or even if it has ever been tried; for it is only the first part of
the liquid to come through the filter which is purified, and very soon the surface
has taken up all the salt it can adsorb, and after that, of course, the solution
comes through intact. It is interesting, however, to know that so long ago as
Defoe’s time the phenomenon of adsorption from salt solutions had been
observed. It is not so well known that in the case of some salts under the cir-
cumstances mentioned above, the first of the solution to come through the sand
filter is stronger instead of weaker. This, as already mentioned, is because
water, or at least a weaker solution, forms the adsorption layer.

Most of the alkali chlorides as the temperature is raised show this anomalous
adsorption, provided the strength of the solution is below a certain critical value
differing for each temperature. For strengths of solution above these values
the normal phenomenon takes place.

No investigations seem to have been made on the effect of pressure on adsorp-
tion. These data are much to be desired.

The investigation of adsorption and absorption should throw light on Osmosis,
as in the first place the phenomenon occurs across a surface necessarily covered
with an adsorption layer, and in the second place, as we shall see, the final con-
dition is an equilibrium between the absorption of water by the solution and that
by the membrane.

The study of the conditions of absorption of water throughout the mass of the
colloidal substance of which osmotic membranes are made is of much interest.
Little work has been done on the subject as yet, but what little has been done is
very promising

It is convenient to call the material of which a semi-permeable membrane is
made the semi-permeable medium. The ideal semi-permeable medium will not
absorb any salt from the solution, but only water, but such perfection is probably
seldom to be met with. If a semi-permeable medium such as parchment paper
be immersed in a solution, say, of sugar, less water is taken up or absorbed than
is the case when the immersion is in pure water. The diminution in the amount
absorbed is found to increase with the strength of the solution. It is at the
same time found that the absorption or release of water by the semi-permeable
medium according as the solution is made weaker or stronger is accompanied by
a swelling or shrinkage greater than can be accounted for by the water taken up
or rejected,

The amount of water absorbed by a semi-permeable medium from a solution
is found by experiment to depend upon the hydrostatic pressure. If the pressure
be increased the amount of water absorbed by the semi-permeable medium is
increased. It is always thus possible by the application of pressure to force the
semi-permeable medium to take up from a given solution as much water as it
takes up from pure water at atmospheric pressure.

It is not possible for a mass of such a medium to be simultaneously in con-
tact and in equilibrium with both pure water and with a solution all at one and
the same pressure, seeing that the part of the medium in contact with the pure
water would hold more water than that part in contact with the solution, and
consequently diffusion would take place through the mass of the medium.

If, however, the medium be arranged so as to separate the solution
and the water, and provided the medium is capable of standing the necessary
strain, it is possible to increase the pressure of the solution without increasing
the pressure of the water on the other side. Thus the part of the medium which
is in contact with the solution is at a higher pressure than that part in contact
with the pure solvent; consequently the medium can be in equilibrium with both
the solution and the solvent, for if the pressures are rightly adjusted the moisture
throughout the medium is everywhere the same.

The ordinary arrangement for showing osmotic pressure is a case such as we
are considering, and equilibrium throughout the membrane is only obtained when
the necessary difference in pressure exists between the two sides of the
membrane.

This condition would eventually be reached no matter how thick the mem-
brane was. It is sometimes helpful to think of the membrane as being very

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 289

thick. It precludes any temptation to view molecules as shooting across from one
liquid to the other through some kind of peepholes in the membrane.

The advantage of a thin membrane in practice is simply that the necessary
moisture is rapidly applied to the active surface, thus enabling the pressure on
the side of the solution to rise quickly, but it has no effect on the ultimate
equilibrium. ;

As far as that goes, the semi-permeable membrane or saturated medium
might be infinitely thick, or, in other words, there need be no receptacle or place
for holding the pure solvent outside the membrane at all. In fact, the function
of the receptacle containing the pure solvent is only to keep the medium moist,
and is no more or no less important than the vessel of water supplied to the
gauze of the wet-bulb thermometer. It is merely to keep up the supply of water
to the medium.

The real field where the phenomenon of osmosis takes place is the surface of
separation between the saturated semi-permeable medium and the solution.
Imagine a large mass of colloidal substance saturated with water and having a
cavity containing a solution. The pressure will now tend to rise in the cavity
until it reaches the osmotic pressure—that is, until there is established an equi-
librium of surface transfer of molecules from the solution into the medium and
back from the medium into the solution.

No doubt, the phenomenon as thus described occurs often in Nature. It is
just possible that the high-pressure liquid cavities which mineralogists find in
certain rock crystals have been formed in some such manner in the midst of a
mass of semi-permeable medium; the pure solvent in this case being carbon
dioxide and the medium colloidal silica, which has since changed into quartz
crystal.

In considering equilibrium between a saturated semi-permeable medium
and a solution there seems to me to be a point which should be carefully con-
sidered before being neglected in any complete theory. That is, the adsorption
layer over the surface of the semi-permeable medium. We have seen that solu-
tions are profoundly modified in the surface layers adjoining certain solids,
through concentration or otherwise of the salts in the surface layer, so that the
actual equilibrium of surface transfer of water molecules is not between the
unmodified solution and the semi-permeable medium, but between the altered
solution in the absorption layer and the saturated medium. Actual determina-
tions of the adsorption by colloids are much wanted, so as to be able to be quite
sure of what this correction amounts to or even if it exists. It may turn out to
be zero. If there is adsorption, however, it may possibly help to account for part
of the unexpectedly high values of the osmotic pressure observed at high con-
centrations of the solution, the equilibrium being, as we have seen, between the

turated medium and a solution of greater concentration than the bulk of the
iquid, namely, that of the adsorption layer. In addition, when above the
critical adsorption point, there may be a deposit in the solid state. This may
produce a kind of polarised equilibrium of surface transfer in which the molecules
which discharge from the saturated medium remain unaltered in amount, but
those which move back from the adsorption layer are reduced owing to this
deposit, thus necessitating an increase in pressure for equilibrium. If either
or both of these effects really exist, it would seem to require that the pressure
should be higher for equilibrium of the molecular surface transfer than if there
were no adsorption layer and the unaltered solution were to touch the medium,
but at the same time it should be remembered that there is a second surface
where equilibrium must also exist—that is, the surface of separation of the
adsorption layer and the solution itself. It is just possible that the two together
cancel each other’s action.

Quantitative determinations of absorption by solid media from solution are
hard to carry out, but with a liquid medium are not so difficult. Ether con-
stitutes an excellent semi-permeable medium for use with sugar solution, because
it takes up or dissolves only a small quantity of water and no sugar. <A series
of experiments using these for medium and solution has shown (1) that the absorp-
tion of water from a solution diminishes with the strength of the solution; and
(2) that the absorption of water for any given strength of solution increases with
the pressure. This increase with pressure is somewhat more rapid than if it

1914. o

290 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

were in proportion to the pressure. On the other hand, from pure water ether
absorbs in excess of normal almost in proportion to the pressure. Certainly this
is so up to 100 atmospheres. This would go to confirm the suggestion already
made that the departure from proportionality in the osmotic pressure is attri-
butable to absorption.

By applying pressure ether can be thus made to take up the same quantity of
water from any given solution as it takes up from pure water at atmospheric
pressure. It is found by experiment that this pressure is the osmotic pressure
proper to the solution in question.

Decidedly the most interesting fact connected with the whole question of
osmotic pressure, the behaviour of vapour pressures from solution, and the
equilibrium of molecular transfer of solutions with colloids, is that discovered
by van ’t Hoff, that the hydrostatic pressure in ques

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